Cognitive biases in military personnel with and without PTSD: a systematic review

References

• Aday, J. S., & Carlson, J. M. (2019). Extended testing with the dot-probe task increases test–retest reliability and validity. Cognitive Processing, 20(1), 65–72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-018-0886-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5). American Psychiatric Pub.
   Google Scholar
• Amir, N., McNally, R. J., & Wiegartz, P. S. (1996). Implicit memory bias for threat in posttraumatic stress disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 20(6), 625–635. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02227965
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Armstrong, T., Bilsky, S. A., Zhao, M., & Olatunji, B. O. (2013). Dwelling on potential threat cues: An eye movement marker for combat-related PTSD. Depression and Anxiety, 30(5), 497–502. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22115
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ashley, V., Honzel, N., Larsen, J., Justus, T., & Swick, D. (2013). Attentional bias for trauma-related words: Exaggerated emotional Stroop effect in Afghanistan and Iraq war veterans with PTSD. BMC Psychiatry, 13, 86. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-13-86
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beard, C. (2011). Cognitive bias modification for anxiety: Current evidence and future directions. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 11(2), 299–311. https://doi.org/10.1586/ern.10.194
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck, A. T., & Clark, D. A. (1997). An information processing model of anxiety: Automatic and strategic processes. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35(1), 49–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(96)00069-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bomyea, J., Johnson, A., & Lang, A. J. (2017). Information processing in PTSD: Evidence for biased attentional, interpretation, and memory processes. Psychopathology Review, a4(3), 218–243. https://doi.org/10.5127/pr.037214
   Google Scholar
• Brewin, C. R., Garnett, R., & Andrews, B. (2011). Trauma, identity and mental health in UK military veterans. Psychological Medicine, 41(8), 1733–1740. https://doi.org/10.1017/S003329171000231X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewin, C. R., Reynolds, M., & Tata, P. (1999). Autobiographical memory processes and the course of depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108(3), 511–517. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.108.3.511
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brinker, M., Westermeyer, J., Thuras, P., & Canive, J. (2007). Severity of combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder versus noncombat-related posttraumatic stress disorder: A community-based study in American Indian and Hispanic veterans. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 195(8), 655–661. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0b013e31811f4076
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castro, C. A., Kintzle, S., & Hassan, A. M. (2015). The combat veteran paradox: Paradoxes and dilemmas encountered with reintegrating combat veterans and the agencies that support them. Traumatology, 21(4), 299–310. https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000049
   Google Scholar
• Childers, T. (2009). Soldier from the war returning: The greatest generation’s troubled homecoming from World War II. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
   Google Scholar
• Clark, D. M., & McManus, F. (2002). Information processing in social phobia. Biological Psychiatry, 51(1), 92–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(01)01296-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155–159. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Constans, J. I. (2005). Information-processing biases in PTSD. In J. J. Vasterling & C. R. Brewin (Eds.), Neuropsychology of PTSD: Biological, cognitive, and clinical perspectives (pp. 105–130). New York, NY: The Guildford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Constans, J. I., Kimbrell, T. A., Nanney, J. T., Marx, B. P., Jegley, S., & Pyne, J. M. (2014). Over-reporting bias and the modified Stroop effect in operation enduring and Iraqi freedom veterans with and without PTSD. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 123(1), 81–90. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035100
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38(4), 319–345. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00123-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fertout, M., Jones, N., Greenberg, N., Mulligan, K., Knight, T., & Wessely, S. (2011). A review of United Kingdom Armed Forces’ approaches to prevent post-deployment mental health problems. International Review of Psychiatry (Abingdon, England), 23(2), 135–143. https://doi.org/10.3109/09540261.2010.557770
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frappell-Cooke, W., Gulina, M., Green, K., Hacker Hughes, J., & Greenberg, N. (2010). Does trauma risk management reduce psychological distress in deployed troops? Occupational Medicine, 60(8), 645–650. https://doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kqq149
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaylord, K. M., Holcomb, J. B., & Zolezzi, M. E. (2009). A comparison of posttraumatic stress disorder between combat casualties and civilians treated at a military burn center. Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery, 66(4), S195. https://doi.org/10.1097/TA.0b013e31819d9c21
   Google Scholar
• Golier, J. A., Yehuda, R., Lupien, S. J., & Harvey, P. D. (2003). Memory for trauma-related information in holocaust survivors with PTSD. Psychiatry Research, 121(2), 133–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0925-4927(03)00120-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenberg, N., Langston, V., Everitt, B., Iversen, A., Fear, N. T., Jones, N., & Wessely, S. (2010). A cluster randomized controlled trial to determine the efficacy of trauma risk management (TRiM) in a military population. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(4), 430–436. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20538
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greifeneder, R., Bless, H., & Fiedler, K. (2017). Social cognition: How individuals construct social reality. Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hayes, S., & Hirsch, C. R. (2007). Information processing biases in generalized anxiety disorder. Psychiatry, 6(5), 176–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mppsy.2007.02.003
   Google Scholar
• Henigsberg, N., Folnegovic-Smalc, V., & Moro, L. (2001). Stressor characteristics and post-traumatic stress disorder symptom dimensions in war victims. Croatian Medical Journal, 42(5), 543–550.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaspi, S. P., McNally, R. J., & Amir, N. (1995). Cognitive processing of emotional information in posttraumatic-stress-disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 19(4), 433–444. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02230410
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khanna, M. M., Badura-Brack, A. S., McDermott, T. J., Shepherd, A., Heinrichs-Graham, E., Pine, D. S., Bar-Haim, Y., & Wilson, T. W. (2016). Attention training normalises combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder effects on emotional Stroop performance using lexically matched word lists. Cognition and Emotion, 30(8), 1521–1528. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2015.1076769
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimble, M. O., Frueh, B. C., & Marks, L. (2009). Does the modified Stroop effect exist in PTSD? Evidence from dissertation abstracts and the peer reviewed literature. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23(5), 650–655. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2009.02.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimble, M. O., Kaufman, M. L., Leonard, L. L., Nestor, P. G., Riggs, D. S., Kaloupek, D. G., & Bachrach, P. (2002). Sentence completion test in combat veterans with and without PTSD: Preliminary findings. Psychiatry Research, 113(3), 303–307. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-1781(02)00229-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarov, A., Suarez-Jimenez, B., Abend, R., Naim, R., Shvil, E., Helpman, L., Zhu, X., Papini, S., Duroski, A., Rom, R., Schneier, F. R., Pine, D. S., Bar-Haim, Y., & Neria, Y. (2019). Bias-contingent attention bias modification and attention control training in treatment of PTSD: A randomized control trial. Psychological Medicine, 49(14), 2432–2440. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291718003367
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McNally, R. J., Kaspi, S. P., Riemann, B. C., & Zeitlin, S. B. (1990). Selective processing of threat cues in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99(4), 398–402. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.99.4.398
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McNally, R. J., Lasko, N. B., Macklin, M. L., & Pitman, R. K. (1995). Autobiographical memory disturbance in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33(6), 619–630. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(95)00007-K
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McNally, R. J., Litz, B. T., Prassas, A., Shin, L. M., & Weathers, F. W. (1994). Emotional priming of autobiographical memory in post-traumatic stress disorder. Cognition & Emotion, 8(4), 351–367. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699939408408946
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McNally, R. J., Amir, N., & Lipke, H. J. (1996). Subliminal processing of threat cues in posttraumatic stress disorder? Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 10(2), 115–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/0887-6185(95)00040-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nanney, J. T., Constans, J. I., Kimbrell, T. A., Kramer, T. L., & Pyne, J. M. (2015). Differentiating between appraisal process and product in cognitive theories of posttraumatic stress. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 7(4), 372–381. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olatunji, B. O., Armstrong, T., McHugo, M., & Zald, D. H. (2013). Heightened attentional capture by threat in veterans with PTSD. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122(2), 397–405. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030440
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paunovi, N., Lundh, L. G., & Ost, L. G. (2002). Attentional and memory bias for emotional information in crime victims with acute posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 16(6), 675–692. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-6185(02)00136-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pineles, S. L., Shipherd, J. C., Welch, L. P., & Yovel, I. (2007). The role of attentional biases in PTSD: Is it interference or facilitation? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45(8), 1903–1913. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2006.08.021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richardson, L. K., Frueh, B. C., & Acierno, R. (2010). Prevalence estimates of combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder: Critical review. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 44(1), 4–19. https://doi.org/10.3109/00048670903393597
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schacter, D. L. (1999). The seven sins of memory: Insights from psychology and cognitive neuroscience. American Psychologist, 54(3), 182–203. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.3.182
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schafer, J., Bernstein, A., Zvielli, A., Hofler, M., Wittchen, H., & Schonfeld, S. (2016). Attentional bias temporal dynamics predict posttraumatic stress symptoms: A prospective-longitudinal study among soldiers. Depression and Anxiety, 33(7), 630–639. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22526
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shay, J. (2003). Odysseus in America: Combat trauma and the trials of homecoming. Simon and Schuster.
   Google Scholar
• Sipos, M. L., Bar-Haim, Y., Abend, R., Adler, A. B., & Bliese, P. D. (2014). Postdeployment threat-related attentional bias interacts with combat exposure to account for PTSD and anxiety symptoms in soldiers. Depression and Anxiety, 31(2), 124–129. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22157
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevelink, S. A., Jones, M., Hull, L., Pernet, D., MacCrimmon, S., Goodwin, L., MacManus, D., Murphy, D., Jones, N., Greenberg, N., Rona, R. J., Fear, N. T., & Wessely, S. (2018). Mental health outcomes at the end of the British involvement in the Iraq and Afghanistan conflicts: A cohort study. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 213(6), 690–697. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.2018.175
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swick, D., & Ashley, V. (2017). Enhanced attentional bias variability in post-traumatic stress disorder and its relationship to more general impairments in cognitive control. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 14559. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-15226-7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Teachman, B. A. (2005). Information processing and anxiety sensitivity: Cognitive vulnerability to panic reflected in interpretation and memory biases. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 29(4), 479–503. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-005-0627-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas, B. H., Ciliska, D., Dobbins, M., & Micucci, S. (2004). A process for systematically reviewing the literature: Providing the research evidence for public health nursing interventions. Worldviews on Evidence-Based Nursing, 1(3), 176–184. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1524-475X.2004.04006.x
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vrana, S. R., Roodman, A., & Beckham, J. C. (1995). Selective processing of trauma-relevant words in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 9(6), 515–530. https://doi.org/10.1016/0887-6185(95)00028-M
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wald, I., Bitton, S., Levi, O., Zusmanovich, S., Fruchter, E., Ginat, K., Charney, D. S., Pine, D. S., & Bar-Haim, Y. (2017). Acute delivery of attention bias modification training (ABMT) moderates the association between combat exposure and posttraumatic symptoms: A feasibility study. Biological Psychology, 122, 93–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2016.01.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wald, I., Degnan, K. A., Gorodetsky, E., Charney, D. S., Fox, N. A., Fruchter, E., Goldman, D., Lubin, G., Pine, D. S., & Bar-Haim, Y. (2013). Attention to threats and combat-related posttraumatic stress symptoms: Prospective associations and moderation by the Serotonin Transporter Gene. JAMA Psychiatry, 70(4), 401–408. https://doi.org/10.1001/2013.jamapsychiatry.188
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wald, I., Fruchter, E., Ginat, K., Stolin, E., Dagan, D., Bliese, P. D., Quartana, P. J., Sipos, M. L., Pine, D. S., & Bar-Haim, Y. (2016). Selective prevention of combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder using attentional bias modification training: A randomized controlled trial. Psychological Medicine, 46(12), 2627–2636. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291716000945
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wald, I., Shechner, T., Bitton, S., Holoshitz, Y., Charney, D. S., Muller, D., Fox, N. A., Pine, D. S., & Bar-Haim, Y. (2011). Attention bias away from threat during life threatening danger predicts PTSD symptoms at one-year follow-up. Depression and Anxiety, 28(5), 406–411. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20808
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wicherts, J. M., Veldkamp, C. L., Augusteijn, H. E., Bakker, M., Van Aert, R., & Van Assen, M. A. (2016). Degrees of freedom in planning, running, analyzing, and reporting psychological studies: A checklist to avoid p-hacking. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1832. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01832
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, A. D., & Grisham, J. R. (2013). Cognitive bias modification (CBM) of obsessive compulsive beliefs. BMC Psychiatry, 13(1), 256. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-13-256
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Williams, J. M., & Broadbent, K. (1986). Autobiographical memory in suicide attempters. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95(2), 144–149. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.95.2.144
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wisco, B. E., Pineles, S. L., Shipherd, J. C., & Marx, B. P. (2013). Attentional interference by threat and post-traumatic stress disorder: The role of thought control strategies. Cognition & Emotion, 27(7), 1314–1325. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2013.775109
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeitlin, S. B., & McNally, R. J. (1991). Implicit and explicit memory bias for threat in post-traumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 29(5), 451–457. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(91)90129-Q
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar