Biomechanical approaches applied to the lower and upper limb for the measurement of spasticity: A systematic review of the literature

References

• Watkins C, Leathley M, Gregson J, Moore A, Smith T, Sharma A. Prevalence of spasticity post stroke. Clinical Rehabilitation 2002; 16(5):515-522.
   Google Scholar
• Lehmann JF, Price R, de Lateur BJ, Hinderer S, Traynor C. Spasticity: quantitative measurements as a basis for assessing effectiveness of therapeutic intervention. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 1989; 70(1):6-15.
   Google Scholar
• Harburn KL, Potter PJ. Spasticity and contractures. Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 1993;7:113-132.
   Google Scholar
• Young RR, Emre M, Nance PW, Schapiro R, Barnes MP. Current issues in spasticity management. The Neurologist 1997;3:261-275.
   Google Scholar
• Haas BM, Crow JL. Towards a clinical measurement of spasticity? Physiotherapy 1995; 8(8):474-479.
   Google Scholar
• Haas BM. Measuring spasticity: a survey of current practice among health care professionals. British Journal of Ther- apeutic Rehabilitation 1994;1:90-95.
   Google Scholar
• Burridge JH, Taylor PN, Hagan SA, Wood DE, Swain ID. The effect of common peroneal nerve stimulation on quadriceps spasticity in hemiplegia. Physiotherapy 1997; 83(2):82-89.
   Google Scholar
• Lance J. Symposium synopsis. In: Feldman RG, Young RR, Koella WP, editors. Spasticity: Disordered motor control. Chicago: Year Book Medical; 1980. pp. 485-494.
   Google Scholar
• Young RR. Spasticity: A review. Neurology 1994;44(Suppl. 9):S12-S20.
   Google Scholar
• Sheean G. The pathophysiology of spasticity. European Journal of Neurology 2002;9(Suppl 1):3-9.
   Google Scholar
• Mayer N. Spasticity and the stretch reflex. Muscle and Nerve 1997;20(Suppl 6):S1-S13.
   Google Scholar
• Grimm RJ. Program disorders of movement. Advances in Neurology 1983;39:1-11.
   Google Scholar
• Katz RT, Rymer WZ. Spastic hypertonia: mechanisms and measurement. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilita- tion 1989; 70(2):144-155.
   Google Scholar
• Toft E, Sinkjaer T, Espersen GT. Quantitation of the stretch reflex: technical procedures and clinical applications. Acta Neurologica Scandinavia 1989; 79(5):384-390.
   Google Scholar
• Price R. Mechanical spasticity evaluation techniques. Critical Reviews in Physical Rehabilitation Medicine 1990;2:65-73.
   Google Scholar
• Hagbarth KE. Evaluation of and methods to change muscle tone. Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine 1994; 30(Suppl.):19-32.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson GR. Outcome measures of spasticity. European Journal of Neurology 2002;9:10-16.
   Google Scholar
• Otis JC, Root L, Pamilla JR, Kroll MA. Biomechanical measurement of spastic plantarflexors. Developmental Med- icine and Child Neurology 1983; 25(1):60-66.
   Google Scholar
• Neilson PD, McCaughey J. Effect of contraction level and magnitude of stretch on tonic stretch reflex transmission characteristics. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 1981; 44(11):1007-1012.
   Google Scholar
• Pandyan AD, Price CIM, Rodgers H, Barnes MP, Johnson GR. Biomechanical examination of a commonly used measure of spasticity. Clinical Biomechanics 2001; 16(10):859-865.
   Google Scholar
• Worley JS, Bennett W, Miller G, Miller M, Walker B, Harmon C. Reliability of three clinical measures of muscle tone in the shoulders and wrists of poststroke patients. American Journal of Occupational Therapy 1991; 45(1):50-58.
   Google Scholar
• Gottlieb GL, Agarwal GC. Response to sudden torques about ankle in man: myotatic reflex. Journal of Neurophy- siology 1979;42(1 Pt 1):91-106.
   Google Scholar
• Burridge JH, McLellan DL. Relation between abnormal patterns of muscle activation and response to common peroneal nerve stimulation in hemiplegia. Journal of Neurol- ogy, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 2000;69:353-361.
   Google Scholar
• Akman MN, Bengi R, Karatas M, Kilinc S, Sozay S, Ozker R. Assessment of spasticity using isokinetic dynamometry in patients with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 1999; 37(9):638-643.
   Google Scholar
• Engsberg JR, Ross SA, Olree KS, Park TS. Ankle spasticity and strength in children with spastic diplegic cerebral palsy. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 2000; 42(1):42-47.
   Google Scholar
• Lamontagne A, Malouin F, Richards CL, Dumas F. Evaluation of reflex- and nonreflex-induced muscle resis- tance to stretch in adults with spinal cord injury using hand- held and isokinetic dynamometry. Physical Therapy 1998; 78(9):964-975.
   Google Scholar
• Pisano F, Miscio G, Del Conte C, Pianca D, Candeloro E, Colombo R. Quantitative measures of spasticity in post- stroke patients. Clinical Neurophysiology 2000; 111(6):1015-1022.
   Google Scholar
• Wolf SL, Segal RL, Catlin PA, Tschorn J, Raleigh T, Kontos H, et al. Determining consistency of elbow joint threshold angle in elbow flexor muscles with spastic hypertonia. Physical Therapy 1996; 76(6):586-600.
   Google Scholar
• Dvir Z, Panturin E. Measurement of spasticity and asso- ciated reactions in stroke patients before and after physiotherapeutic intervention. Clinical Rehabilitation 1993;7:15-21.
   Google Scholar
• Stefanovska A, Vodovnik L, Gros N, Rebersek S, Acimovic- Janezic R. FES and spasticity. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering 1989; 36(7):738-745.
   Google Scholar
• Potisk KP, Gregoric M, Vodovnik L. Effects of transcuta- neous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) on spasticity in patients with hemiplegia. Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilita- tion Medicine 1995; 27(3):169-174.
   Google Scholar
• Sahrmann SA, Norton BJ. Stretch reflex of the biceps and brachioradialis muscles in patients with upper motor neuron syndrome. Physical Therapy 1978; 58(10):1191-1194.
   Google Scholar
• Jobin A, Levin MF. Regulation of stretch reflex threshold in elbow flexors in children with cerebral palsy: a new measure of spasticity. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 2000; 42(8):531-540.
   Google Scholar
• Kearney RE, Stein RB, Parameswaran L. Identification of intrinsic and reflex contributions to human ankle stiffness dynamics. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering 1997;44:493-504.
   Google Scholar
• Mirbagheri MM, Barbeau H, Ladouceur M, Kearney RE. Intrinsic and reflex stiffness in normal and spastic, spinal cord injured subjects. Experimental Brain Research 2001; 141(4):446-459.
   Google Scholar
• Smith GV, Silver KH, Goldberg AP, Macko RF. ‘Task- oriented’ exercise improves hamstring strength and spastic reflexes in chronic stroke patients. Stroke; a Journal of Cerebral Circulation 1999; 30(10):2112-2118.
   Google Scholar
• Lamontagne A, Malouin F, Richards CL, Dumas F. Impaired viscoelastic behaviour of spastic plantarflexors during passive stretch at different velocities. Clinical Biome- chanics 1997;12(7-8):508-515.
   Google Scholar
• Kamper DG, Rymer WZ. Quantitative features of the stretch response of extrinsic finger muscles in hemiparetic stroke. Muscle Nerve 2000; 23(6):954-961.
   Google Scholar
• Becher JG, Harlaar J, Lankhorst GJ, Vogelaar TW. Measurement of impaired muscle function of the gastro- cnemius, soleus, and tibialis anterior muscles in spastic hemiplegia: A preliminary study. Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development 1998; 35(3):314-326.
   Google Scholar
• Hunter IW, Kearney RE. Dynamics of human ankle stiffness: variation with mean ankle torque. Journal of Biomechanics 1982;15:747.
   Google Scholar
• Yeh CY, Tsai KH, Chen JJJ. Development of a device for prolonged muscle stretch treatment and for quantitative assessment of spasticity. Proceedings of the 22nd Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society; 2000.
   Google Scholar
• Robinson CJ, Flaherty B, Agarwal GC, Gottlieb GL. Reflex responses to ankle perturbations during electrical stimulation of muscle: 1. Measurement techniques and preliminary examples. Biomedical Science Instrumentation 1990; 26:101-105.
   Google Scholar
• Brown JK, van Rensburg F, Walsh G, Lakie M, Wright GW. A neurological study of hand function of hemiplegic children. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 1987; 29(3):287-304.
   Google Scholar
• Crago PE, Houk JC, Hasan Z. Regulatory actions of human stretch reflex. Journal of Neurophysiology 1976; 39(5):925-935.
   Google Scholar
• Rosenbaum D, Hennig EM. The influence of stretching and warm-up exercises on Achilles tendon reflex activity. Journal of Sports Science 1995; 13(6):481-490.
   Google Scholar
• Fedotova EN, Fedotov NN, Kozlova ZZ. Quantitative measurement of tendon reflexes in man. Biomedical Engineering 1976; 10(6):352-353.
   Google Scholar
• Zhang LQ, Xu D, Liao W, Rymer WZ. A quantitative and convenient method of evaluating tendon reflex and spasticity. Proceedings of the First Joint BMES/EMBS Conference; 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Zhang LQ, Rymer WZ. Simultaneous and nonlinear identification of mechanical and reflex properties of human elbow joint muscles. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering 1997; 44(12):1192-1209.
   Google Scholar
• Singer B, Dunne J, Allison G. Clinical evaluation of hypertonia in the triceps surae muscles. Physical Therapy Reviews 2001;6:71-80.
   Google Scholar
• Fryer G, Lamonte RJ, Simons DG. An electronically controlled automatic reflex hammer. Medical and Biological Engineering 1972; 10(1):125-129.
   Google Scholar
• Huang H, Zhang L, Rymer WZ. A computer-controlled electromechanical hammer to quantify tendon reflex. Proceedings of the 19th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society; 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Vattanasilp W, Ada L. The relationship between clinical and laboratory measures of spasticity. Australian Journal of Physiotherapy 1999; 45(2):135-139.
   Google Scholar
• Wartenberg R. Pendulousness of the leg as a diagnostic test. Neurology 1951;1:18-24.
   Google Scholar
• Bajd T, Bowman B. Testing and modelling of spasticity. Journal of Biomedical Engineering 1982; 4(90):90-96.
   Google Scholar
• Stillman B, McMeeken J. A video-based version of the pendulum test: technique and normal response. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 1995;76:166-176.
   Google Scholar
• Lin CC, Ju MS, Lin CW. The pendulum test for evaluating spasticity of the elbow joint. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 2003; 84(1):69-74.
   Google Scholar
• Bajd T, Vodovnik L. Pendulum testing of spasticity. Journal of Biomedical Engineering 1984; 6(1):9-16.
   Google Scholar
• Fowler EG, Nwigwe AI, Ho TW. Sensitivity of the pendulum test for assessing spasticity in persons with cerebral palsy. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurol- ogy 2000; 42(3):182-189.
   Google Scholar
• Katz RT, Rovai GP, Brait C, Rymer WZ. Objective quantification of spastic hypertonia-correlation with clinical findings. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 1992; 73(4):339-347.
   Google Scholar
• Fowler V, Canning CG, Carr JH, Shepherd RB. Muscle length effect on the pendulum test. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 1998; 79(2):169-171.
   Google Scholar
• Vodovnik L, Bowman BR, Bajd T. Dynamics of spastic knee joint. Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing. 1984; 22(1):63-69.
   Google Scholar
• He J. Stretch reflex sensitivity: effects of postural and muscle length changes. IEEE Transactions on Rehabilitation En- gineering 1998; 6(2):182-189.
   Google Scholar
• Bianchi L, Monaldi F, Paolucci S, Iani C, Lacquaniti F. Quantitative analysis of the pendulum test: application to multiple sclerosis patients treated with botulinum toxin. Functional Neurology 1999; 14(2):79-92.
   Google Scholar
• Sinkjaer T, Magnussen I. Passive, intrinsic and reflex- mediated stiffness in the ankle extensors of hemiparetic patients. Brain 1994;117(Pt 2):355-363.
   Google Scholar
• Knutsson E, Martensson A. Isokinetic measurements of muscle strength in hysterical paresis. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 1985; 61(5):370-374.
   Google Scholar
• Davies JM, Mayston MJ, Newham DJ. Electrical and mechanical output of the knee muscles during isometric and isokinetic activity in stroke and healthy adults. Disability Rehabilitation 1996; 18(2):83-90.
   Google Scholar
• O’Dwyer NJ, Ada L, Neilson PD. Spasticity and muscle contracture following stroke. Brain 1996;119(Pt 5):1737-1749.
   Google Scholar
• Crenna P. Spasticity and ‘spastic’ gait in children with cerebral palsy. Neuroscience and Biobehavioural Reviews 1998;22:571-579.
   Google Scholar
• Krawetz P, Nance P. Gait analysis of spinal cord injured subjects: Effects of injury level and spasticity. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 1996; 77(7): 635-638.
   Google Scholar
• Granata KP, Abel MF, Damiano DL. Joint angular velocity in spastic gait and the influence of muscle-tendon lengthening. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 2000;82A:174-186.
   Google Scholar
• Nadeau S, Arsenault B, Gravel D, Bourbonnais D. Analysis of the clinical factors determining natural and maximal gait speeds in adults with a stroke. American Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 1999; 78(2):123-130.
   Google Scholar
• Dietz V. Neurophysiology of gait disorders: present and future applications. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 1997; 103(3):333-355.
   Google Scholar
• Yang JF, Stein RB, James KB. Contribution of peripheral afferents to the activation of the soleus muscle during walking in humans. Experimental Brain Research 1991;87:679-687.
   Google Scholar
• Andersen JB, Sinkjaer T. An actuator system for investigat- ing electrophysiological and biomechanical features around the human ankle joint during gait. IEEE Transactions on Rehabilitation Engineering 1996;3:299-306.
   Google Scholar
• Dewald JPA, Pope PS, Given JD, Buchanan TS, Rymer WZ. Abnormal muscle coactivation patterns during isometric torque generation at the elbow and shoulder in hemiparetic subjects. Brain 1995;118:495-510.
   Google Scholar
• Fellows SJ, Kaus C, Thilmann AF. Voluntary movement at the elbow in spastic hemiparesis. Annals of Neurology 1994;36:397-407.
   Google Scholar
• Cathers I, O’Dwyer N, Neilson P. Tracking performance with sinusoidal and irregular targets under different condi- tions of peripheral feedback. Experimental Brain Research 1996; 111(3):437-446.
   Google Scholar