References
- North CS, Nixon SJ, Shariat S, et al. Psychiatric disorders among survivors of the Oklahoma City bombing. JAMA. 1999;282(8):755–762.
- Galea S, Nandi A, Vlahov D. The epidemiology of post-traumatic stress disorder after disasters. Epidemiol Rev. 2005;27:78–91.
- Whalley MG, Brewin CR. Mental health following terrorist attacks. Br J Psychiatry. 2007;190:94–96.
- Jehel L, Paterniti S, Brunet A, et al. Prediction of the occurrence and intensity of post-traumatic stress disorder in victims 32 months after bomb attack. Eur Psychiatry. 2003;18(4):172–176.
- Ohbu S, Yamashina A, Takasu N, et al. Sarin poisoning on Tokyo subway. South Med J. 1997;90(6):587–593.
- Neria Y, DiGrande L, Adams BG. Posttraumatic stress disorder following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks: a review of the literature among highly exposed populations. Am Psychol. 2011;66(6):429–446.
- Bonanno GA. Loss, trauma, and human resilience: have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? Am Psychol. 2004;59(1):20–28.
- Adams RE, Boscarino JA. Predictors of PTSD and delayed PTSD after disaster: the impact of exposure and psychosocial resources. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2006;194(7):485–493.
- Campbell-Sills L, Cohan SL, Stein MB. Relationship of resilience to personality, coping, and psychiatric symptoms in young adults. Behav Res Ther. 2006;44(4):585–599.
- Quale AJ, Schanke AK. Resilience in the face of coping with a severe physical injury: a study of trajectories of adjustment in a rehabilitation setting. Rehabil Psychol. 2010;55(1):12–22.
- DiGrande L, Perrin MA, Thorpe LE, et al. Posttraumatic stress symptoms, PTSD, and risk factors among lower Manhattan residents 2–3 years after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. J Trauma Stress. 2008;21(3):264–273.
- Bugge I, Dyb G, Stensland SO, et al. Physical injury and posttraumatic stress reactions. A study of the survivors of the 2011 shooting massacre on Utoya Island, Norway. J Psychosom Res. 2015;79(5):384–390.
- Hepp U, Moergeli H, Buchi S, et al. Post-traumatic stress disorder in serious accidental injury: 3-year follow-up study. Br J Psychiatry. 2008;192(5):376–383.
- Forbes D, Nickerson A, Alkemade N, et al. Longitudinal analysis of latent classes of psychopathology and patterns of class migration in survivors of severe injury. J Clin Psychiatry. 2015;76(9):1193–1199.
- Quale AJ, Schanke AK, Froslie KF, et al. Severity of injury does not have any impact on posttraumatic stress symptoms in severely injured patients. Injury. 2009;40(5):498–505.
- McCarthy ML, MacKenzie EJ, Edwin D, et al. Psychological distress associated with severe lower-limb injury. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2003;85-A(9):1689–1697.
- Moergeli H, Wittmann L, Schnyder U. Quality of life after traumatic injury: a latent trajectory modeling approach. Psychother Psychosom. 2012;81(5):305–311.
- Schweininger S, Forbes D, Creamer M, et al. The temporal relationship between mental health and disability after injury. Depress Anxiety. 2015;32(1):64–71.
- Holmes AC, O'Donnell ML, Williamson O, et al. Persistent disability is a risk factor for late-onset mental disorder after serious injury. Aust NZJ Psychiatry. 2014;48(12):1143–1149.
- Vassend O, Quale AJ, Roise O, et al. Predicting the long-term impact of acquired severe injuries on functional health status: the role of optimism, emotional distress and pain. Spinal Cord. 2011;49(12):1193–1197.
- Dyb G, Jensen TK, Nygaard E, et al. Post-traumatic stress reactions in survivors of the 2011 massacre on Utoya Island, Norway. Br J Psychiatry. 2014;204:361–367.
- Sharp TJ, Harvey AG. Chronic pain and posttraumatic stress disorder: mutual maintenance? Clin Psychol Rev. 2001;21(6):857–877.
- Otis JD, Keane TM, Kerns RD. An examination of the relationship between chronic pain and post-traumatic stress disorder. J Rehabil Res Dev. 2003;40(5):397–405.
- Asmundson GJ, Katz J. Understanding the co-occurrence of anxiety disorders and chronic pain: state-of-the-art. Depress Anxiety. 2009;26(10):888–901.
- Teasdale G, Jennett B. Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness. A practical scale. Lancet. 1974;2(7872):81–84.
- Wilson JT, Pettigrew LE, Teasdale GM. Structured interviews for the Glasgow Outcome Scale and the extended Glasgow Outcome Scale: guidelines for their use. J Neurotrauma. 1998;15(8):573–585.
- Pynoos RS, Rodriguez N, Steinberg AM, et al. UCLA PTSD Index for DSM-IV. Los Angeles: University of California. 1998.
- Steinberg AM, Brymer MJ, Decker KB, et al. The University of California at Los Angeles Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Reaction Index. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2004;6(2):96–100.
- American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM–IV–TR). (4th edn, text revision). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2000.
- Rodriguez N, Steinberg AS, Saltzman WS, et al. PTSD Index: Psychometric analyses of the adolescent version. Symposium. Annual Meeting of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies; december 6-9; New Orleans, LA. 2001. December 6–9.
- Steinberg AM, Brymer MJ, Kim S, et al. Psychometric properties of the UCLA PTSD reaction index: part I. J Trauma Stress. 2013;26(1):1–9.
- Strand BH, Dalgard OS, Tambs K, et al. Measuring the mental health status of the Norwegian population: a comparison of the instruments SCL-25, SCL-10, SCL-5 and MHI-5 (SF-36). Nord J Psychiatry. 2003;57(2):113–118.
- Tambs K, Moum T. How well can a few questionnaire items indicate anxiety and depression? Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1993;87(5):364–367.
- Krupp LB, LaRocca NG, Muir-Nash J, et al. The fatigue severity scale. Application to patients with multiple sclerosis and systemic lupus erythematosus. Arch Neurol. 1989;46(10):1121–3.
- Bastien CH, Vallieres A, Morin CM. Validation of the Insomnia Severity Index as an outcome measure for insomnia research. Sleep Med. 2001;2(4):297–307.
- Friborg O, Hjemdal O, Rosenvinge JH, et al. A new rating scale for adult resilience: what are the central protective resources behind healthy adjustment? Int J Methods Psychiatr Res. 2003;12(2):65–76.
- Carver CS, Scheier MF, Miller CJ, et al. Optimism. In: Lopez SJ, Snyder CR, editors. Oxford handbook of positive psychology. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2009. p. 303–312.
- Scheier MF, Carver CS, Bridges MW. Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): a reevaluation of the Life Orientation Test. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1994;67(6):1063–1078.
- Engvik H, Føllesdal H. The Big Five Inventory på norsk. Tidsskrift for Norsk Psykologforening. 2005;42:128–129.
- Broadhead WE, Gehlbach SH, de Gruy FV, et al. The Duke-UNC Functional Social Support Questionnaire. Measurement of social support in family medicine patients. Med Care. 1988;26(7):709–723.
- Osler T, Baker SP, Long W. A modification of the injury severity score that both improves accuracy and simplifies scoring. J Trauma. 1997;43(6):922–925; discussion 925-6.
- Bonanno GA, Galea S, Bucciarelli A, et al. Psychological resilience after disaster: New York City in the aftermath of the September 11th terrorist attack. Psychol Sci. 2006;17(3):181–186.
- Lerdal A, Bakken LN, Rasmussen EF, et al. Physical impairment, depressive symptoms and pre-stroke fatigue are related to fatigue in the acute phase after stroke. Disabil Rehabil. 2011;33(4):334–342.
- Dyb G, Jensen T, Glad KA, et al. Early outreach to survivors of the shootings in Norway on the 22nd of July 2011. Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2014;5.
- Thoresen S, Aakvaag HF, Wentzel-Larsen T, et al. The day Norway cried: proximity and distress in Norwegian citizens following the 22nd July 2011 terrorist attacks in Oslo and on Utoya Island. Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2012;5:1.
- Morina N, Wicherts JM, Lobbrecht J, et al. Remission from post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of long term outcome studies. Clin Psychol Rev. 2014;34(3):249–255.
- Ardelt M. Still stable after all these years? personality stability theory revisited. Soc Psychol Quart. 2000;63(4):392–405.
- Fletcher S, O’donnell M, Forbes D. Personality and trajectories of posttraumatic psychopathology: a latent change modelling approach. J Anxiety Disord. 2016;42:1–9.
- Williamson OD, Epi GD, Gabbe BJ, et al. Predictors of moderate or severe pain 6 months after orthopaedic injury: a prospective cohort study. J Orthop Trauma. 2009;23(2):139–144.
- Turk DC. A diathesis-stress model of chronic pain and disability following traumatic injury. Pain Res Manag. 2002;7(1):9–19.
- Young Casey C, Greenberg MA, Nicassio PM, et al. Transition from acute to chronic pain and disability: a model including cognitive, affective, and trauma factors. Pain. 2008;134(1–2):69–79.
- Sollid SJ, Rimstad R, Rehn Met al. Oslo government district bombing and Utøya island shooting July 22, 2011: the immediate prehospital emergency medical service response. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med 2012;20:3.