A comparison of the quality of intrusive memories in post-traumatic stress disorder and depression

REFERENCES

• American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition, text revision (DSM-IV-TR). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.
   Google Scholar
• Berntsen, D., & Hall, N. M. (2004). The episodic nature of involuntary autobiographical memories. Memory and Cognition, 32, 789–803. 10.3758/BF03195869
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birrer, E., Michael, T., & Munsch, S. (2007). Intrusive images in PTSD and in traumatised and non-traumatised depressed patients: A cross-sectional clinical study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 2053–2065. 10.1016/j.brat.2007.03.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blaney, P. (1986). Affect and memory: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 229–246. 10.1037/0033-2909.99.2.229
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyd, J. H., Weissman, M. M., Thompson, D., & Myers, J. K. (1982). Screening for depression in a community sample. Archives of General Psychiatry, 39, 1195–1200. 10.1001/archpsyc.1982.04290100059010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewin, C. R., Dalgleish, T., & Joseph, S. (1996). A dual representation theory of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychological Review, 103, 670–686. 10.1037/0033-295X.103.4.670
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewin, C. R., Gregory, J. D., Lipton, M., & Burgess, N. (2010). Intrusive images in psychological disorders: Characteristics, neural mechanisms, and treatment implications. Psychological Review, 117, 210–232. 10.1037/a0018113
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewin, C. R., & Holmes, E. A. (2003). Psychological theories of post-traumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychology Review, 23, 339–376. 10.1016/S0272-7358(03)00033-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewin, C. R., Hunter, E., Carroll, F., & Tata, P. (1996). Intrusive memories in depression: An index of schema activation? Psychological Medicine, 26, 1271–1276. 10.1017/S0033291700035996
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryant, R. A., O'Donnell, M. L., Creamer, M., McFarlane, A. C., & Silove, D. (2011). Post-traumatic intrusive symptoms across psychiatric disorders. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 45, 842–847. 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2010.11.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conway, M. A., & Pleydell-Pearce, C. W. (2000). The construction of autobiographical memories in the self-memory system. Psychological Review, 107, 261–288. 10.1037/0033-295X.107.2.261
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corcoran, K., & Fisher, J. (1987). Measures for clinical practice: A source book. New York, NY: Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Creamer, M., Bell, R., & Failla, S. (2003). Psychometric properties of the Impact of Event Scale - Revised. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 1489–1496. 10.1016/j.brat.2003.07.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foa, E. B., Cashman, L., Jaycox, L., & Perry, K. (1997). The validation of a self-report measure of post-traumatic stress disorder: The Post-traumatic Diagnostic Scale. Psychological Assessment, 9, 445–451. 10.1037/1040-3590.9.4.445
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of post-traumatic stress disorder. Behaviour and Research Therapy, 38, 319–345. 10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00123-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehlers, A., Hackmann, A., & Michael, T. (2004). Intrusive re-experiencing in post-traumatic stress disorder: Phenomenology, theory, and therapy. Memory, 12, 403–415. 10.1080/09658210444000025
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehlers, A., Hackmann, A., Steil, R., Clohessy, S., Wenninger, K., & Winter, H. (2002). The nature of intrusive memories after trauma: The warning signal hypothesis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 995–1002. 10.1016/S0005-7967(01)00077-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• First, M. B., Gibbon, M., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. W. (2007). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-TR Axis I Disorders, research version, patient edition (SCID-I/P, 1/2007 revision). New York, NY: Biometrics Research, New York State Psychiatric Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Gallagher, S. (2007). The natural philosophy of agency. Philosophy Compass, 2, 347–357. 10.1111/j.1747-9991.2007.00067.x
   Google Scholar
• Ganis, G., Thompson, W. L., & Kosslyn, S.M. (2004). Brain areas underlying visual mental imagery and visual perception: A fMRI study. Cognitive Brain Research, 20, 226–241. 10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2004.02.012
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gotlib, I. H., & Joorman, J. (2010). Cognition and depression: Current status and future directions. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 6, 285–312. 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.121208.131305
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hackmann, A., Ehlers, A., Speckens, A., & Clark, D. M. (2004). Characteristics and content of intrusive memories in PTSD and their changes with treatment. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17, 231–240. 10.1023/B:JOTS.0000029266.88369.fd
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halligan, S. L., Clark, D. M., & Ehlers, A. (2002). Cognitive processing, memory, and the development of PTSD symptoms: Two experimental analogue studies. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 33, 73–89. 10.1016/S0005-7916(02)00014-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hellawell, S. J., & Brewin, C. R. (2002). A comparison of flashbacks and ordinary autobiographical memories of trauma: Cognitive resources and behavioural observations. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 1143–1156. 10.1016/S0005-7967(01)00080-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hellawell, S. J., & Brewin, C. R. (2004). A comparison of flashbacks and ordinary autobiographical memories of trauma: Content and language. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 1–12. 10.1016/S0005-7967(03)00088-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holmes, E. A., Grey, N., & Young, K. A. (2005). Intrusive images and “hotspots” of trauma memories in Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: An exploratory investigation of emotions and cognitive themes. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 36, 3–17. 10.1016/j.jbtep.2004.11.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jelinek, L., Randbjar, S., Seifert, D., Kellner, M., & Moritz, S. (2009).The organisation of autobiographical and nonautobiographical memories in post traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 288–298. 10.1037/a0015633
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, C., Harvey, A. G., & Brewin, C. R. (2007). The organisation and content of trauma memories in survivors of road traffic accidents. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 151–162. 10.1016/j.brat.2006.02.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kandris, E., & Moulds, M. L. (2008). Can imaginal exposure reduce intrusive memories in depression? A case study. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 37, 216–220.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kuyken, W., & Brewin, C. R. (1994). Intrusive memories of childhood abuse during depressive episodes. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32, 525–528. 10.1016/0005-7967(94)90140-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mace, J. H. (2010). Involuntary remembering and voluntary remembering. In J. H. Mace (Ed.), The act of remembering: Toward an understanding of how we recall the past. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Marmar, C. R., Weiss, D. S., & Metzler, L. J. (1997). The Peritraumatic Dissociative Experiences Questionnaire. In J. P. Wilson & T. M. Keane, Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD (pp. 412–428). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Meiser-Stedman, R., Dalgleish, T., Yule, W., & Smith, P. (2012). Intrusive memories and depression following recent non-traumatic negative life events in adolescents. Journal of Affective Disorders, 137, 70–78. 10.1016/j.jad.2011.12.020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michael, T., Ehlers, A., Halligan, S. L., & Clark, D. M. (2005). Unwanted memories of assault: What intrusion characteristics are associated with PTSD? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 613–628. 10.1016/j.brat.2004.04.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newby, J. M., & Moulds, M. L. (2011). Characteristics of intrusive memories in a community sample of depressed, recovered depressed and never-depressed individuals. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 49, 234–243. 10.1016/j.brat.2011.01.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newby, J. M., & Moulds, M. L. (2012). A comparison of the content, themes, and features of intrusive memories and rumination in major depressive disorder. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 51, 197–205. 10.1111/j.2044-8260.2011.02020.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Kearney, R., Hunt, A., & Wallace, N. (2011). Integration and organisation of trauma memories and post traumatic symptoms. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24, 716–725. 10.1002/jts.20690
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Kearney, R., & Perrott, K. (2006). Trauma narratives in post-traumatic stress disorder: A review. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19, 81–93. 10.1002/jts.20099
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Kearney, R., Speyer, J., & Kenardy, J. (2007). Children's narrative memory for accidents and their post-traumatic distress. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21, 821–838. 10.1002/acp.1294
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patel, T., Brewin, C. R., Wheatley, J., Wells, A., Fisher, P., & Myers, S. (2007). Intrusive images and memories in major depression. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 2573–2580. 10.1016/j.brat.2007.06.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401. 10.1177/014662167700100306
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reynolds, M., & Brewin, C. R. (1998). Intrusive cognitions, coping strategies and emotional responses in depression, post-traumatic stress disorder and a non-clinical population. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 135–147. 10.1016/S0005-7967(98)00013-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reynolds, M., & Brewin, C. R. (1999). Intrusive memories in depression and post-traumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 201–215. 10.1016/S0005-7967(98)00132-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubin, D. C., Berntsen, D., & Boals, A. (2008). Memory in post-traumatic stress disorder: Properties of voluntary and involuntary, traumatic and nontraumatic autobiographical memories in people with and without post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 137, 591–614. 10.1037/a0013165
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santor, D. A., & Coyne, J. C. (1997). Shortening the CES-D to improve its ability to detect cases of depression. Psychological Assessment, 9, 233–243. 10.1037/1040-3590.9.3.233
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santor, D. A., Zuroff, D. C., Ramsay, J. O., Cervantes, P., & Palacios, J. (1995). Examining scale discriminability in the BDI and CES-D as a function of depressive severity. Psychological Assessment, 7, 131–139. 10.1037/1040-3590.7.2.131
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlagman, S., & Kvavilashvili, L. (2008). Involuntary autobiographical memories in and outside the laboratory: How different are they from voluntary autobiographical memories? Memory & Cognition, 36, 920–932. 10.3758/MC.36.5.920
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shalev, A. Y., Peri, T., Canetti, L., & Schreiber, S. (1996). Predictors of PTSD in injured trauma survivors: A prospective study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 219–225.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Speckens, A. E. M., Ehlers, A., Hackmann, A., & Clark, D. M. (2006). Changes in intrusive memories associated with imaginal reliving in post-traumatic stress disorder. Anxiety Disorders, 20, 328–341. 10.1016/j.janxdis.2005.02.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spenceley, A., & Jerrom, B. (1997). Intrusive traumatic childhood memories in depression: A comparison between depressed, recovered and never depressed women. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 25, 309–318. 10.1017/S1352465800018713
   Google Scholar
• SPSS Inc. (2009). Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) [computer software] (Version 18.0). Chicago, IL: SPSS Inc. PASW Statistics.
   Google Scholar
• Tampke, A. K., & Irwin, H. J. (1999). Dissociative processes and symptoms of post-traumatic stress in Vietnam veterans. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 12, 725–738. 10.1023/A:1024733621595
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teasdale, J. D., & Cox, S. D. (2001). Dysphoria: Self-devaluative and affective components in recovered depressed patients and never depressed controls. Psychological Medicine, 31, 1311–1316. 10.1017/S003329170100424X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Kolk, B. A., & Fisler, R. (1995). Dissociation and the fragmentary nature of traumatic memories: Overview and exploratory study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8, 505–525. 10.1002/jts.2490080402
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss, D. S., & Marmar, C. R. (1997). The Impact of Event Scale - Revised. In J. P. Wilson & T. M. Keane (Eds.) Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD (pp. 399–411). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Williams, A. D., & Moulds, M. L. (2007). An investigation of the cognitive and experiential features of intrusive memories in depression. Memory, 15, 912–920. 10.1080/09658210701508369
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zanarini, M. C., & Frankenburg, F. R. (2001). Attainment and maintenance of reliability of Axis I and II disorders over the course of a longitudinal study. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 42, 369–374. 10.1053/comp.2001.24556
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar