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Original Articles

Irrigation and Water Management in Turkmenistan: Past Systems, Present Problems and Future Scenarios

Pages 21-41 | Published online: 01 Jul 2010

References

  • IMF . May 1997 . Turkmenistan: Recent Economic Developments , May , Washington : IMF .
  • Bartold , V. V. 1914 . K astir orosheniya Turkestana St Petersburg
  • Dukhovny , V. 1995 . Civilisation and Water Resources Management in Central Asia , Tashkent : World Bank . (report prepared for the
  • Babaev , A. 1996 . Problems of Aridland Development , Moscow University Press .
  • UNDP . 1997 . Turkmenistan: Human Development Report 1996 , Ashgabat .
  • Babaev , A. G. 1994 . “ 'Landscapes of Turkmenistan' ” . In Biogeography and Ecology of Turkmenistan , Monographicae Biologicae Edited by: Fet , V. and Atamuradov , K. I. Vol. 72 , Kluwer Academic Press .
  • Orlovsky , N. S. 1994 . “ 'Climate of Turkmenistan' ” . In Biogeography and Ecology of Turkmenistan , Monographicae Biologicae Edited by: Fet , V. and Atamuradov , K. I. Vol. 72 , Kluwer Academic Press .
  • Ibid.
  • Lewis , R. 1966 . 'Early irrigation in West Turkestan' . Annals of the Association of American Geographers , 56 : 467 – 491 .
  • Micklin , P. P. 1991 . The Water Management Crisis in Central Asia, The Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies , University of Pittsburgh Center for Russian and East European Studies .
  • 1997 . Turkmenistan , 29 January : 2
  • O'Hara , S. L. 1997 . 'Irrigation and land degradation: implications for agriculture in Turkmenistan, Central Asia''' . Journal of Arid Environments , 37 : 165 – 179 .
  • Masson , V. M. 1961 . 'The First Farmers in Turkmenia' . Antiquity , 35 : 203 – 213 .
  • Harris , D. R. , Masson , V. M. , Berezkin , Y. E. , Charles , M. P. , Gosden , C. , Hillman , G. C. , Kasparov , A. K. , Korobkova , G. F. , Kurbansakhatov , K. , Legge , A. G. and Limbrey , S. 1993 . 'Investigating Early Agriculture in Central Asia: New Research at Jeitun, Turkmenistan' . Antiquity , 67 : 324 – 338 .
  • The International Merv Project . 1996 . The Ancient Cities of Merv, Turkmenistan , Institute of Archaeology, University of London .
  • Rashid , A. 1994 . The Resurgence of Central Asia: Islam or Nationalism? , Zed Books .
  • Dukhovny, Civilisation and Water Resources Management.
  • Zakharchenko , B. T. 1994 . Kratkaya istoriya postroeniya Niyazov-Kara-Kumskogo Kanala , Ashgabad .
  • Pierce , R. A. 1960 . Russian Central Asia 1867-1917: A Study in Colonial Rule , University of California Press .
  • Gleason , G. 1991 . 'The struggle for control over water in Central Asia: republican sovereignty and collective action''' . RFE/RL Report on the USSR , 21 June : 11 – 19 .
  • Zakharchenko , B. T. 1990 . Voda v turkmenskoi zhizni , Ashgabad .
  • Ibid.
  • Patnaik , A. 1995 . 'Agriculture and rural out-migration in Central Asia: 1960-1991' . Europe-Asia Studies , 47 ( 1 ) : 147 – 169 .
  • World Bank . 1994 . Turkmenistan: A Worm Bank Country Study Washington
  • Gleason , G. 1993 . 'Central Asia: Land Reform and the Ethnic Factor' . RFE/RL Research Report , 2 ( 3 ) 15 January : 28 – 33 . Turkmenistan was the first of the Central Asian republics to adopt a post-independence constitution. Article 9 of the constitution guarantees citizens the right to capital, land and other material and intellectual property.
  • Levine , S. and Corzine , R. 1995 . Financial Times , 22 August reported a three-year shortage of such staples as milk, flour and cooking oil. In November 1995 reserves of flour were so low that it was necessary to seek emergency supplies from international sources. In 1996 bread shortages resulted in demonstrations in May, although there is no official media coverage of this event, while in January 1997 the European Union announced that it was planning to provide Turkmenistan with 10 million ECU in structural food aid
  • 1997 . SWB , 11 January : G2
  • Hannah , T. and O'Hara , S. 1998 . 'Managing Turkmenistan's Karakum Canal: problems and perspectives' . Post-Soviet Geography and Economics , 39 ( 4 ) : 225 – 235 .
  • MLRWM . 1996 . Turkmenistan Irrigation and Water Management
  • Turkmenbashi , S. 1994 . Ten Years of Prosperity: An Economic Program by the President of Turkmenistan City of Ashgabat
  • O'Hara , S. L. 1997 . 'Agriculture and land reform in Turkmenistan since independence' . Post-Soviet Geography and Economics , 38 ( 7 ) : 430 – 444 . There has been a marked decline in crop yields in recent years. Wheat yields, for example, fell from 2.22 tonnes per hectare in 1990 to 0.8 tonnes per hectare in 1996. Yields for other crops such as rice and cotton have also declined although not to the same extent as wheat.
  • O'Hara , S.L. 1997 . 'Agriculture and land reform in Turkmenistan since independence' . Post-Soviet Geography Economics , 38 ( 7 ) : 430 – 444 . There has been a marked decline in crop yields in recent years. Wheat yields, for example fell from 2.22 tonnes per hectare in 1990 to 0.8 tonnes per hectare in 1996. Yields for other crops such as rice and cotton have also declined although not to the same as wheat.
  • Goble , P. and Pannier , B. 1997 . 'A watershed in Central Asia' . RFE/RL Newsline , 1 ( 82/1 ) 28 July
  • O'Hara, 'Agriculture and land reform in Turkmenistan since independence'.
  • MLRWM, Turkmenistan Irrigation and Water Management.
  • IMF, Turkmenistan: Recent Economic Developments.
  • 1997 . SWB Weekly Economic Report , 22 August None of the farmers we spoke to during 1997 had received full payment for the 1996 harvest and were concerned that the same would happen in 1997. In August 1997 the president decreed that the central bank was to borrow money from abroad to pay wages and that the money would be repaid once the harvest had been sold.
  • O'Hara, 'Agriculture and land reform in Turkmenistan since independence'.
  • O'Hara, 'Irrigation and land degradation'.
  • Haub , C. 1994 . 'Population Changes in the Former Soviet Republics' . Population Bulletin , 49 ( 4 ) : 1 – 48 .
  • O'Hara, 'Agriculture and land reform in Turkmenistan since independence'.

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