12,867
Views
45
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Cyanobacterial metabolites as a source of sunscreens and moisturizers: a comparison with current synthetic compounds

, &
Pages 43-56 | Received 18 Mar 2016, Accepted 03 Jun 2016, Published online: 20 Dec 2016

References

  • Andersen, F.A. (1999). Final safety assessment for PCA and sodium PCA. International Journal of Toxicology, 18: 25–34.
  • Avenel-Audran, M., Dutartre, H., Goossens, A., Jeanmougin, M., Comte, C., Bernier, C., Benkalfate, L., Michel, M., Ferrier-Lebouedec, M.C., Vigan, M., Bourrain, J.L., Outtas, O., Peyron, J.L. & Martin, L. (2010). Octocrylene, an emerging photoallergen. Archives of Dermatology, 146: 753–757.
  • Axelstad, M., Boberg, J., Hougaard, K.S., Christiansen, S., Jacobsen, P.R., Mandrup, K.R., Nellemann, C., Lund, S.P. & Hass, U. (2011). Effects of pre-and postnatal exposure to the UV-filter octylmethoxycinnamate (OMC) on the reproductive, auditory and neurological development of rat offspring. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 250: 278–290.
  • Baker, T.J., Tyler, C.R. & Galloway, T.S. (2014). Impacts of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles on marine organisms. Environmental Pollution, 186: 257–271. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.11.014.
  • Balskus, E.P. & Walsh, C.T. (2010). The genetic and molecular basis for sunscreen biosynthesis in cyanobacteria. Science, 329: 1653–1656.
  • Bowker, M.A., Reed, S.C., Belnap, J. & Phillips, S.L. (2002).Temporal variation in community composition, pigmentation, and Fv/Fm of desert cyanobacterial soil crusts. Microbial Ecology, 43: 13–25.
  • Budden, T. & Bowden, N.A. (2013). The role of altered nucleotide excision repair and UVB-induced DNA damage in melanomagenesis. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 14: 1132–1151.
  • Buraczewska, I., Berne, B., Lindberg, M., Törmä, H. & Lodén, M. (2007). Changes in skin barrier function following long‐term treatment with moisturizers, a randomized controlled trial. British Journal of Dermatology, 156: 492–498.
  • Buraczewska, I., Berne, B., Lindberg, M., Lodén, M. & Törmä, H. (2009). Long-term treatment with moisturizers affects the mRNA levels of genes involved in keratinocyte differentiation and desquamation. Archives of Dermatological Research, 301: 175–181.
  • Caiola, M.G., Billi, D. & Friedmann, E.I. (1996). Effect of desiccation on envelopes of the cyanobacterium Chroococcidiopsis sp. (Chroococcales). European Journal of Phycology, 31: 97–105.
  • Carreto, J.I. & Carignan, M.O. (2011). Mycosporine-like amino acids: relevant secondary metabolites. Chemical and ecological aspects. Marine Drugs, 9: 387–446.
  • Chakraborty, T. & Pal, R. (2014). An overview of cyanobacterial exopolysaccharides: features, composition and effects of stress exposure. International Journal of Life Sciences, 8: 1–9.
  • Choi, J.W., Kwon, S.H., Huh, C.H., Park, K.C. & Youn, S.W. (2013). The influences of skin visco‐elasticity, hydration level and aging on the formation of wrinkles: a comprehensive and objective approach. Skin Research and Technology, 19: e349–e355.
  • Christen, V., Zucchi, S. & Fent, K. (2011). Effects of the UV-filter 2-ethyl-hexyl-4-trimethoxycinnamate (EHMC) on expression of genes involved in hormonal pathways in fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) and link to vitellogenin induction and histology. Aquatic Toxicology, 102: 167–176.
  • Cross, R.K., Tyler, C. & Galloway, T.S. (2015). Transformations that affect fate, form and bioavailability of inorganic nanoparticles in aquatic sediments. Environmental Chemistry, 12: 627–642.
  • Daniel, S., Cornelia, S. & Fred, Z. (2004). UV-A sunscreen from red algae for protection against premature skin aging. Cosmetics and Toiletries Manufacture Worldwide, 204: 139–143.
  • De Philippis, R. & Vincenzini, M. (1998). Exocellular polysaccharides from cyanobacteria and their possible applications. FEMS Microbiology Reviews, 22: 151–175.
  • Deng, X., Luan, Q., Chen, W., Wang, Y., Wu, M., Zhang, H. & Jiao, Z. (2009). Nanosized zinc oxide particles induce neural stem cell apoptosis. Nanotechnology, 20: 101–115.
  • Dillon, J.G. & Castenholz, R.W. (1999). Scytonemin, a cyanobacterial sheath pigment, protects against UVC radiation: implications for early photosynthetic life. Journal of Phycology, 35: 673–681.
  • Dillon, J.G., Tatsumi, C.M., Tandingan, P.G. & Castenholz, R.W. (2002). Effect of environmental factors on the synthesis of scytonemin, a UV-screening pigment, in a cyanobacterium (Chroococcidiopsis sp.). Archives of Microbiology, 177: 322–331.
  • Fernandes, B.D., Mota, A., Teixeira, J.A. & Vicente, A.A. (2015). Continuous cultivation of photosynthetic microorganisms: approaches, applications and future trends. Biotechnological Advances, 33: 1228–1245.
  • Fleming, E.D. & Castenholz, R.W. (2007). Effects of periodic desiccation on the synthesis of the UV‐screening compound, scytonemin, in cyanobacteria. Environmental Microbiology, 9: 1448–1455.
  • Fleming, E.D. & Castenholz, R.W. (2008). Effects of nitrogen source on the synthesis of the UV-screening compound, scytonemin, in the cyanobacterium Nostoc punctiforme PCC 73102. FEMS Microbiology Ecology, 63: 301–308.
  • Flynn, T.C., Petros, J., Clark, R.E. & Viehman, G.E. (2001). Dry skin and moisturizers. Clinics in Dermatology, 19: 387–392.
  • Gao, Q. & Garcia-Pichel, F. (2011). Microbial ultraviolet sunscreens. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 9: 791–802.
  • Garcia‐Pichel, F. & Castenholz, R.W. (1991). Characterization and biological implications of scytonemin, a cyanobacterial sheath pigment. Journal of Phycology, 27: 395–409.
  • Garcia‐Pichel, F., Sherry, N.D. & Castenholz, R.W. (1992). Evidence for an ultraviolet sunscreen role of the extracellular pigment scytonemin in the terrestrial cyanobacterium Chlorogloeopsis sp. Photochemistry and Photobiology, 56: 17–23.
  • Gloaguen, V., Morvan, H. & Hoffmann, L. (1995). Released and capsular polysaccharides of Oscillatoriaceae (Cyanophyceae, Cyanobacteria). Algological Studies, 78: 53–69.
  • Harding, C.R., Watkinson, A., Rawlings, A.V. & Scott, I.R. (2000). Dry skin, moisturization and corneodesmolysis. International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 22: 21–52.
  • Held, E., Sveinsdóttir, S. & Agner, T. (1999). Effect of long-term use of moisturizer on skin hydration, barrier function and susceptibility to irritants. Acta Dermato-Venereologica, 79: 49–51.
  • Hexsel, C.L., Bangert, S.D., Hebert, A.A. & Lim, H.W. (2008). Current sunscreen issues: 2007 Food and Drug Administration sunscreen labelling recommendations and combination sunscreen/insect repellent products. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 59: 316–323.
  • Hupel, M., Poupart, N. & Gall, E.A. (2011). Development of a new in vitro method to evaluate the photoprotective sunscreen activity of plant extracts against high UV-B radiation. Talanta, 86: 362–371.
  • Ichihashi, M., Ueda, M., Budiyanto, A., Bito, T., Oka, M., Fukunaga, M., Tsuru, K. & Horikawa, T. (2003). UV-induced skin damage. Toxicology, 189: 21–39.
  • Kanekiyo, K., Lee, J. B., Hayashi, K., Takenaka, H., Hayakawa, Y., Endo, S. & Hayashi, T. (2005). Isolation of an antiviral polysaccharide, Nostoflan, from a terrestrial cyanobacterium, Nostoc flagelliforme. Journal of Natural Products, 68: 1037–1041.
  • Kanekiyo, K., Hayashi, K., Takenaka, H., Lee, J. B. & Hayashi, T. (2007). Anti-herpes simplex virus target of an acidic polysaccharide, Nostoflan, from the edible blue-green alga Nostoc flagelliforme. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 30: 1573–1575.
  • Kanekiyo, K., Hayashi, K., Lee, J.B., Takenaka, H. & Hayashi, T. (2008). Structure and antiviral activity of an acidic polysaccharide from an edible blue-green alga, Nostoc flagelliforme. Yakugaku zasshi: Journal of the Pharmaceutical Society of Japan, 128: 725–731.
  • Karlsson, I., VandenBroecke, K., Mårtensson, J., Goossens, A. & Börje, A. (2011). Clinical and experimental studies of octocrylene’s allergenic potency. Contact Dermatitis, 64: 343–352.
  • Kedar, L., Kashman, Y. & Oren, A. (2002). Mycosporine-2-glycine is the major mycosporine-like amino acid in a unicellular cyanobacterium (Euhalothece sp.) isolated from a gypsum crust in a hypersaline saltern pond. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 208: 233–237.
  • Kerr, A.C., Ferguson, J., Haylett, A.K., Rhodes, L.E., Adamski, H., Alomar, A., Serra, E., Antoniou, C., Aubin, F., Vigan, M., Biedermann, T., Fischer, J., Bourrain, J.L., Bruynzeel, D., Rustemeyer, T., Carrascosa, J.M., Chowdhury, M.M., de la Cuadra, J., Foti, C., Gardeazabal, J., Gawkrodger, D.J., Gimenez-Arnau, A., Goncalo, M., Goossens, A., Lecha, M., Marguery, M.C., Neumann, N.J., Niklasson, B., Peyron, J.L., Pigatto, P., Spiewak, R., Stone, N., Tanew, A., Thomas, P., Bonnevalle, A., Wilkinson, S.M., Wolf, P., Gruber-Wackernagel, A. & Wulf, H.C. (2012). A European multi-centre photopatch test study (EMCPPTS). British Journal of Dermatology, 166: 1002–1009.
  • Klammer, H., Schlecht, C., Wuttke, W., Schmutzler, C., Gotthardt, I., Köhrle, J. & Jarry, H. (2007). Effects of a 5-day treatment with the UV-filter octyl-methoxycinnamate (OMC) on the function of the hypothalamo-pituitary–thyroid function in rats. Toxicology, 238: 192–199.
  • Kligman, A.M. (2000). Cosmetics: a dermatologist looks to the future: promises and problems. Dermatologic Clinics, 18: 699–709.
  • Kole, P.L., Jadhav, H.R., Thakurdesai, P. & Nagappa, A.N. (2005). Cosmetic potential of herbal extracts. Natural Product Radiance, 4: 315–321.
  • Kraft, J.N. & Lynde, C.W. (2005). Moisturizers: what they are and a practical approach to product selection. Skin Therapy Letters, 10: 1–8.
  • Lai, J.C., Lai, M.B., Jandhyam, S., Dukhande, V.V., Bhushan, A., Daniels, C.K. & Leung, S.W. (2008). Exposure to titanium dioxide and other metallic oxide nanoparticles induces cytotoxicity on human neural cells and fibroblasts. International Journal of Nanomedicine, 3: 533–545.
  • Lai, M.C. & Lan, E.I. (2015). Advances in metabolic engineering of cyanobacteria for photosynthetic biochemical production. Metabolites, 5: 636–658.
  • Lessmann, H., Schnuch, A., Geier, J. & Uter, W. (2005). Skin‐sensitizing and irritant properties of propylene glycol. Contact Dermatitis, 53: 247–259.
  • Li, H., Xu, J., Liu, Y., Ai, S., Qin, F., Li, Z., Zhang, H. & Huang, Z. (2011). Antioxidant and moisture-retention activities of the polysaccharide from Nostoc commune. Carbohydrate Polymers, 83: 1821–1827.
  • Lisby, S., Gniadecki, R. & Wulf, H.C. (2005). UV‐induced DNA damage in human keratinocytes: quantitation and correlation with long‐term survival. Experimental Dermatology, 14: 349–355.
  • Liu, Z., Häder, D.P. & Sommaruga, R. (2004). Occurrence of mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs) in the bloom-forming cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa. Journal of Plankton Research, 26: 963–966.
  • Llewellyn, C.A. & Airs, R.L. (2010). Distribution and abundance of MAAs in 33 species of microalgae across 13 classes. Marine Drugs, 8: 1273–1291.
  • Lodén, M. (2003). Do moisturizers work? Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology, 2: 141–149.
  • Lodén, M., Andersson, A.C., Anderson, C., Bergbrant, I.M., Frödin, T., Ohman, H., Sandström, M.H., Särnhult, T., Voog, E., Stenberg, B., Pawlik, E., Preisler-Häggqvist, A., Svensson, A. & Lindberg, M. (2002). A double-blind study comparing the effect of glycerin and urea. Acta Dermato-Venereologica, 82: 45–47.
  • Lu, Y.P., Lou, Y.R., Xie, J.G., Peng, Q., Shih, W.J., Lin, Y. & Conney, A.H. (2009). Tumorigenic effect of some commonly used moisturizing creams when applied topically to UVB-pretreated high-risk mice. Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 129: 468–475.
  • Mahajan, U. & Wasule, D. (2008). Sunscreen and anti-oxidant activities of herbal gel formulations. Pharmacognosy Magazine, 4: 99–101.
  • Malla, S. & Sommer, M.O. (2014). A sustainable route to produce the scytonemin precursor using Escherichia coli. Green Chemistry, 16: 3255–3265.
  • Mandal, S. & Rath, J. (2014). Extremophilic Cyanobacteria for Novel Drug Development. Springer, Dordrecht.
  • Manová, E., von Goetz, N., Hauri, U., Bogdal, C. & Hungerbühler, K. (2013). Organic UV filters in personal care products in Switzerland: a survey of occurrence and concentrations. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 216: 508–514.
  • Manová, E., von Goetz, N. & Hungerbuehler, K. (2015). Aggregate consumer exposure to UV filter ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate via personal care products. Environment International, 74: 249–257.
  • Matsui, K., Nazifi, E., Kunita, S., Wada, N., Matsugo, S. & Sakamoto, T. (2011). Novel glycosylated mycosporine-like amino acids with radical scavenging activity from the cyanobacterium Nostoc commune. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology, 105: 81–89.
  • Matsui, K., Nazifi, E., Hirai, Y., Wada, N., Matsugo, S. & Sakamoto, T. (2012). The cyanobacterial UV-absorbing pigment scytonemin displays radical-scavenging activity. Journal of General and Applied Microbiology, 58: 137–144.
  • Misonou, T., Saitoh, J., Oshiba, S., Tokitomo, Y., Maegawa, M., Inoue, Y., Hori, H. & Sakurai, T. (2003). UV-absorbing substance in the red alga Porphyra yezoensis (Bangiales, Rhodophyta) block thymine photodimer production. Marine Biotechnology, 5: 194–200.
  • Nazifi, E., Wada, N., Yamaba, M., Asano, T., Nishiuchi, T., Matsugo, S. & Sakamoto, T. (2013). Glycosylated porphyra-334 and palythine-threonine from the terrestrial cyanobacterium Nostoc commune. Marine Drugs, 11: 3124–3154.
  • Nazifi, E., Wada, N., Asano, T., Nishiuchi, T., Iwamuro, Y., Chinaka, S., Matsugo, S. & Sakamoto, T. (2015). Characterization of the chemical diversity of glycosylated mycosporine-like amino acids in the terrestrial cyanobacterium Nostoc commune. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology, 142: 154–168.
  • Nohynek, G.J., Dufour, E.K. & Roberts, M.S. (2008). Nanotechnology, cosmetics and the skin: is there a health risk? Skin Pharmacology and Physiology, 21: 136–149.
  • Okajima, M.K., Bamba, T., Kaneso, Y., Hirata, K., Fukusaki, E., Kajiyama, S.I. & Kaneko, T. (2008). Supergiant ampholytic sugar chains with imbalanced charge ratio form saline ultra-absorbent hydrogels. Macromolecules, 41: 4061–4064.
  • Okajima, M.K., Miyazato, S. & Kaneko, T. (2009). Cyanobacterial megamolecule sacran efficiently forms LC gels with very heavy metal ions. Langmuir, 25: 8526–8531.
  • Oren, A. & Gunde-Cimerman, N. (2007). Mycosporines and mycosporine-like amino acids: UV protectants or multipurpose secondary metabolites? FEMS Microbiology Letters, 269: 1–10.
  • Orton, D.I. & Wilkinson, J.D. (2004). Cosmetic allergy. American Journal of Clinical Dermatology, 5: 327–337.
  • Oyamada, C., Kaneniwa, M., Ebitani, K., Murata, M. & Ishihara, K. (2008). Mycosporine-like amino acids extracted from scallop (Patinopecten yessoensis) ovaries: UV protection and growth stimulation activities on human cells. Marine Biotechnology, 10: 141–150.
  • Ozáez, I., Martínez-Guitarte, J.L. & Morcillo, G. (2013). Effects of in vivo exposure to UV filters (4-MBC, OMC, BP-3, 4-HB, OC, OD-PABA) on endocrine signaling genes in the insect Chironomus riparius. Science of the Total Environment, 456: 120–126.
  • Pan, Z., Lee, W., Slutsky, L., Clark, R.A., Pernodet, N. & Rafailovich, M.H. (2009). Adverse effects of titanium dioxide nanoparticles on human dermal fibroblasts and how to protect cells. Small, 5: 511–520.
  • Paris, C., Lhiaubet‐Vallet, V., Jiménez, O., Trullas, C. & Miranda, M.A. (2009). A blocked diketo form of avobenzone: photostability, photosensitizing properties and triplet quenching by a triazine‐derived UVB‐filter. Photochemistry and Photobiology, 85: 178–184.
  • Pereira, S., Zille, A., Micheletti, E., Moradas-Ferreira, P., De Philippis, R. & Tamagnini, P. (2009). Complexity of cyanobacterial exopolysaccharides: composition, structures, inducing factors and putative genes involved in their biosynthesis and assembly. FEMS Microbiology Reviews, 33: 917–941.
  • Portwich, A. & Garcia‐Pichel, F. (2000). A novel prokaryotic UVB photoreceptor in the cyanobacterium Chlorogloeopsis PCC 6912. Photochemistry and Photobiology, 71: 493–498.
  • Quintana, N., Van der Kooy, F., Van de Rhee, M.D., Voshol, G.P. & Verpoorte, R. (2011). Renewable energy from Cyanobacteria: energy production optimization by metabolic pathway engineering. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 91: 471–490.
  • Rastogi, R.P. & Sinha, R.P. (2009). Biotechnological and industrial significance of cyanobacterial secondary metabolites. Biotechnology Advances, 27: 521–539.
  • Rastogi, R.P., Sonani, R.R. & Madamwar, D. (2015). Cyanobacterial sunscreen scytonemin: role in photoprotection and biomedical research. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 176: 1551–1563.
  • Rath, J., Mandal, S. & Adhikary, S.P. (2012). Salinity induced synthesis of UV-screening compound scytonemin in the cyanobacterium Lyngbya aestuarii. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology, 115: 5–8.
  • Rawlings, A.V., Canestrari, D.A. & Dobkowski, B. (2004). Moisturizer technology versus clinical performance. Dermatologic Therapy, 17: 49–56.
  • Richa, R.P., Rastogi, S., Kumari, K.L., Singh, V.K., Kannaujiya, G., Singh, M. & Kesheri, R.P. (2011). Biotechnological potential of mycosporine-like amino acids and phycobiliproteins of cyanobacterial origin. Biotechnology and Bioengineering, 1: 159–171.
  • Riegger, L. & Robinson, D. (1997). Photoinduction of UV-absorbing compounds in Antarctic diatoms and Phaeocystis antarctica. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 160: 13–25.
  • Schaumann, G.E., Philippe, A, Bundschuh, M., Metreveli, G., Klitzke, S., Rakcheev, D., Grün, A., Kumahor, S.K., Kühn, M., Baumann, T., Lang, F., Manz, W., Schulz, R. & Vogel, H.J. (2015). Understanding the fate and biological effects of Ag- and TiO2-nanoparticles in the environment: the quest for advanced analytics and interdisciplinary concepts. Science of the Total Environment, 535: 3–19 (SI).
  • Schlumpf, M., Kypke, K., Wittassek, M., Angerer, J., Mascher, H., Mascher, D., Vokt, C., Birchler, M. & Lichtensteiger, W. (2010). Exposure patterns of UV filters, fragrances, parabens, phthalates, organochlor pesticides, PBDEs, and PCBs in human milk: correlation of UV filters with use of cosmetics. Chemosphere, 81: 1171–1183.
  • Schmid, D., Schürch, C., Zülli, F., Nissen, H.P. & Prieur, H. (2003). Mycosporine-like amino acids: natural UV-screening compounds from red algae to protect the skin against photoaging. SöFW Journal, 129: 38–42.
  • Serpone, N., Dondi, D. & Albini, A. (2007). Inorganic and organic UV filters: their role and efficacy in sunscreens and suncare products. Inorganica Chimica Acta, 360: 794–802.
  • Singh, J.S., Kumar, A., Rai, A.N. & Singh, D.P. (2016). Cyanobacteria: a precious bio-resource in agriculture, ecosystem, and environmental sustainability. Frontiers in Microbiology, 7: 529.
  • Singh, S.P. (2009). Study on mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs) in cyanobacteria: a biochemical, bioinformatics and molecular biology approach. Doctoral Thesis, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany.
  • Singh, S.P., Kumari, S., Rastogi, R.P., Sinha, R. & Sinha, R.P. (2010). Photoprotective and biotechnological potentials of cyanobacterial sheath pigment, scytonemin. African Journal of Biotechnology, 9: 580–588.
  • Sinha, R.P., Ambasht, N.K., Sinha, J.P. & Häder, D.P. (2003). Wavelength-dependent induction of a mycosporine-like amino acid in a rice-field cyanobacterium, Nostoc commune: role of inhibitors and salt stress. Photochemical and Photobiological Sciences, 2: 171–176.
  • Smith, H.D., Baqué, M., Duncan, A.G., Lloyd, C.R., McKay, C.P. & Billi, D. (2014). Comparative analysis of cyanobacteria inhabiting rocks with different light transmittance in the Mojave Desert: a Mars terrestrial analogue. International Journal of Astrobiology, 13: 271–277.
  • Soule, T. & Garcia‐Pichel, F. (2014). Ultraviolet photoprotective compounds from cyanobacteria in biomedical applications. In Cyanobacteria: An Economic Perspective (Sharma, N.K., Rai, A.K. & Stal, L.J.), 119–143. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester.
  • Soule, T., Stout, V., Swingley, W.D., Meeks, J.C. & Garcia-Pichel, F. (2007). Molecular genetics and genomic analysis of scytonemin biosynthesis in Nostoc punctiforme ATCC 29133. Journal of Bacteriology, 189: 4465–4472.
  • Soule, T., Garcia-Pichel, F. & Stout, V. (2009). Gene expression patterns associated with the biosynthesis of the sunscreen scytonemin in Nostoc punctiforme ATCC 29133 in response to UVA radiation. Journal of Bacteriology, 191: 4639–4646.
  • Spence, E., Dunlap, W.C., Shick, J.M. & Long, P.F. (2012). Redundant pathways of sunscreen biosynthesis in a cyanobacterium. ChemBioChem, 13: 531–533.
  • Stevenson, C.S., Capper, E.A., Roshak, A.K., Marquez, B., Eichman, C., Jackson, J.R., Mattern, M., Gerwick, W.H., Jacobs, R.S. & Marshall, L.A. (2002). The identification and characterization of the marine natural product scytonemin as a novel antiproliferative pharmacophore. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 303: 858–866.
  • Stiefel, C. & Schwack, W. (2013). Rapid screening method to study the reactivity of UV filter substances towards skin proteins by high‐performance thin‐layer chromatography. International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 35: 588–599.
  • Suh, H.J., Lee, H.W. & Jung, J. (2003). Mycosporine glycine protects biological systems against photodynamic damage by quenching singlet oxygen with a high efficiency. Photochemistry and Photobiology, 78: 109–113.
  • Tamaru, Y., Takani, Y., Yoshida, T. & Sakamoto, T. (2005). Crucial role of extracellular polysaccharides in desiccation and freezing tolerance in the terrestrial cyanobacterium Nostoc commune. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 71: 7327–7333.
  • Wada, N., Sakamoto, T. & Matsugo, S. (2013). Multiple roles of photosynthetic and sunscreen pigments in cyanobacteria focusing on the oxidative stress. Metabolites, 3: 463–483.
  • Wada, N., Sakamoto, T. & Matsugo, S. (2015). Mycosporine-like amino acids and their derivatives as natural antioxidants. Antioxidants, 4: 603–646.
  • Warren‐Rhodes, K.A., McKay, C.P., Boyle, L.N., Wing, M.R., Kiekebusch, E.M., Cowan, D.A., Stomeo, F., Pointing, S.B., Kaseke, K.F., Eckardt, F., Henschel, J.R., Anisfeld, A., Seely, M. & Rhodes, K.L. (2013). Physical ecology of hypolithic communities in the central Namib Desert: the role of fog, rain, rock habitat, and light. Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences, 118: 1451–1460.
  • White, D.A., Polimene, L. & Llewellyn, C.A. (2011). Effects of ultraviolet‐A radiation and nutrient availability on the cellular composition of photoprotective compounds in Glenodinium foliaceum (Dinophyceae). Journal of Phycology, 47: 1078–1088.
  • Whitton, B.A. (2012). Ecology of Cyanobacteria II. Their Diversity in Space and Time. Springer, Dordrecht.
  • Witcover, J., Yeh, S. & Sperling, D. (2013). Policy options to address global land use change from biofuels. Energy Policy, 56: 63–74.
  • Wolf, R., Wolf, D., Tüzün, B. & Tüzün, Y. (2001). Cosmetics and contact dermatitis. Dermatologic Therapy, 14:181–187.
  • Zhao, L., Fan, F., Wang, P. & Jiang, X. (2013). Culture medium optimization of a new bacterial extracellular polysaccharide with excellent moisture retention activity. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 97: 2841–2850.
  • Zesch, A. (1982). Skin irritation by topical drugs. Dermatosen in Beruf und Umwelt. Occupation and Environment, 31: 74–78.