Representation of adverse childhood experiences is associated with lower public stigma towards people who use drugs: an exploratory experimental study

References

• ACMD (2018). Vulnerabilities and substance use. Home Office.
   Google Scholar
• Addison, S. J., & Thorpe, S. J. (2004). Factors involved in the formation of attitudes towards those who are mentally ill. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 39(3), 228–234. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-004-0723-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahern, J., Stuber, J., & Galea, S. (2007). Stigma, discrimination and the health of illicit drug users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 88(2–3), 188–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.10.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexandrescu, L. (2020). Streets of the ‘spice zombies’: Dependence and poverty stigma in times of austerity. Crime, Media, Culture: An International Journal, 16(1), 97–113. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741659019835274
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andersen, D., & Kessing, M. L. (2019). Stigma, problem drug use, and welfare state encounters: Changing contours of stigmatization in the era of social investment. Addiction Research & Theory, 27(4), 277–284. https://doi.org/10.1080/16066359.2018.1508568
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Angermeyer, M. C., Millier, A., Remuzat, C., Refai, T., & Toumi, M. (2013). Attitudes and beliefs of the French public about schizophrenia and major depression: Results from a vignette-based population survey. BMC Psychiatry, 13, 313. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-13-313
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ashford, R. D., Brown, A. M., & Curtis, B. (2018a). The language of substance use and recovery: Novel use of the Go/No–Go association task to measure implicit bias. Health Communications, 34(11), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2018.1481709
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ashford, R. D., Brown, A. M., & Curtis, B. (2018b). Substance use, recovery, and linguistics: The impact of word choice on explicit and implicit bias. Drug Alcohol Dependence, 189, 131–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.05.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ashford, R. D., Brown, A. M., & Curtis, B. (2019a). "Abusing Addiction": Our Language Still Isn't Good Enough. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 37(2), 257–272. https://doi.org/10.1080/07347324.2018.1513777
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ashford, R. D., Brown, A. M., & Curtis, B. (2019b). Expanding language choices to reduce stigma: A Delphi study of positive and negative terms in substance use and recovery. Health Education, 119(1), 51–62. https://doi.org/10.1108/HE-03-2018-0017
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ashford, R. D., Brown, A. M., McDaniel, J., & Curtis, B. (2019c). Biased labels: An experimental study of language and stigma among individuals in recovery and health professionals. Substance Use & Misuse, 54(8), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2019.1581221
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Associated Press. (2019). The 2019 AP Stylebook. Basic Books.
   Google Scholar
• Atkinson, A. M., McAuley, A., Trayner, K., & Sumnall, H. R. (2019). ‘We are still obsessed by this idea of abstinence’: A critical analysis of UK news media representations of proposals to introduce drug consumption rooms in Glasgow, UK. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 68, 62–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2019.03.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atkinson, A. M., & Sumnall, H. R. (2020). Neo-liberal discourse of substance use in the UK reality TV show, The Jeremy Kyle Show. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 27(1), 15–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687637.2018.1498456
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atkinson, A. M., & Sumnall, H. R. (in press). ‘Zombies’, ‘cannibals’ and ‘super humans’: A quantitative and qualitative analysis of UK news media reporting of the cathinone psychostimulants labelled ‘monkey dust’. Drugs: Education Prevention and Policy.
   Google Scholar
• Ayres, T. C., & Jewkes, Y. (2012). The haunting spectacle of crystal meth: A media-created mythology? Crime, Media, Culture: An International Journal, 8(3), 315–332. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741659012443234
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ayres, T. C., & Taylor, S. (2020). Media and intoxication: Media representations of the intoxicated. In F. Hutton (Ed.), Cultures of Intoxication: Key Issues and Debates (pp. 239–261). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35284-4_11
   Google Scholar
• Belcher, J. R., & DeForge, B. R. (2012). Social stigma and homelessness: The limits of social change. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 22(8), 929–946. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2012.707941
   Google Scholar
• Biancarelli, D. L., Biello, K. B., Childs, E., Drainoni, M., Salhaney, P., Edeza, A., Mimiaga, M. J., Saitz, R., & Bazzi, A. R. (2019). Strategies used by people who inject drugs to avoid stigma in healthcare settings. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 198, 80–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2019.01.037
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birtel, M. D., Wood, L., & Kempa, N. J. (2017). Stigma and social support in substance abuse: Implications for mental health and well-being. Psychiatry Research, 252, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.01.097
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Botticelli, M. P., & Koh, H. K. (2016). Changing the Language of Addiction. JAMA, 316(13), 1361–1362. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2016.11874
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, S. A. (2011). Standardized measures for substance use stigma. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 116(1–3), 137–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.12.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broyles, L. M., Binswanger, I. A., Jenkins, J. A., Finnell, D. S., Faseru, B., Cavaiola, A., Pugatch, M., & Gordon, A. J. (2014). Confronting inadvertent stigma and pejorative language in addiction scholarship: A recognition and response. Substance Abuse, 35(3), 217–221. https://doi.org/10.1080/08897077.2014.930372
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan Carusone, S., Guta, A., Robinson, S., Tan, D. H., Cooper, C., O'Leary, B., de Prinse, K., Cobb, G., Upshur, R., & Strike, C. (2019). "Maybe if I stop the drugs, then maybe they'd care?"—Hospital care experiences of people who use drugs. Harm Reduction Journal, 16(1), 16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12954-019-0285-7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Corrigan, P. W., Edwards, A. B., Green, A., Diwan, S. L., & Penn, D. L. (2001). Prejudice, social distance, and familiarity with mental illness. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 27(2), 219–225. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11354589 https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a006868
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corrigan, P. W., Kuwabara, S. A., & O'Shaughnessy, J. (2009). The public stigma of mental illness and drug addiction: Findings from a stratified random sample. Journal of Social Work, 9(2), 139–147. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468017308101818
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corrigan, P. W., Markowitz, F. E., Watson, A., Rowan, D., & Kubiak, M. A. (2003). An attribution model of public discrimination towards persons with mental illness. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44(2), 162–179. https://doi.org/10.2307/1519806
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corrigan, P. W., & Nieweglowski, K. (2018). Stigma and the public health agenda for the opioid crisis in America. International Journal of Drug Policy, 59, 44–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.06.015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corrigan, P. W., & Wassel, A. (2008). Understanding and influencing the stigma of mental illness. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 46(1), 42–48. https://doi.org/10.3928/02793695-20080101-04
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• da Silveira, S. P., de Tostes, A. J. C., Wan, H. T., Ronzani, T. M., & Corrigan, P. W. (2018). The stigmatization of drug use as mechanism of legitimation of exclusion. In T. M. Ronzani (Ed.), Drugs and social context: Social perspectives on the use of alcohol and other drugs (pp. 15–25). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72446-1_2
   Google Scholar
• Degenhardt, L., Stockings, E., Patton, G., Hall, W. D., & Lynskey, M. (2016). The increasing global health priority of substance use in young people. The Lancet. Psychiatry, 3(3), 251–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(15)00508-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Degenhardt, L., Whiteford, H. A., Ferrari, A. J., Baxter, A. J., Charlson, F. J., Hall, W. D., Freedman, G., Burstein, R., Johns, N., Engell, R. E., Flaxman, A. D., Murray, C. J. L., & Vos, T. (2013). Global burden of disease attributable to illicit drug use and dependence: Findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. The Lancet, 382(9904), 1564–1574. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61530-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dube, S. R., Felitti, V. J., Dong, M., Chapman, D. P., Giles, W. H., & Anda, R. F. (2003). Childhood abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction and the risk of illicit drug use: The adverse childhood experiences study. PEDIATRICS, 111(3), 564–572. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.111.3.564
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Earnshaw, V. A., Bergman, B. G., & Kelly, J. F. (2019). Whether, when, and to whom?: An investigation of comfort with disclosing alcohol and other drug histories in a nationally representative sample of recovering persons. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 101, 29–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2019.03.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farrugia, A. (2014). Assembling the dominant accounts of youth drug use in Australian harm reduction drug education. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 25(4), 663–672. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2014.04.019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A.-G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175–191. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03193146
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fraser, S., K.M, P., Dilkes-Frayne, E., Kokanovic, R., D.R, M., Treloar, C., & Dunlop, A. (2016). Lives of Substance: Personal stories of alcohol and other drug addiction, dependence or habit. Curtin University.
   Google Scholar
• Gilchrist, G., Moskalewicz, J., Slezakova, S., Okruhlica, L., Torrens, M., Vajd, R., & Baldacchino, A. (2011). Staff regard towards working with substance users: A European multi-centre study. Addiction, 106(6), 1114–1125. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03407.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goffman, E. (1974). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. Penguin books.
   Google Scholar
• Goodyear, K., Haass-Koffler, C. L., & Chavanne, D. (2018). Opioid use and stigma: The role of gender, language and precipitating events. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 185, 339–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.12.037
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hickman, M., Steer, C., Tilling, K., Lim, A. G., Marsden, J., Millar, T., Strang, J., Telfer, M., Vickerman, P., & Macleod, J. (2018). The impact of buprenorphine and methadone on mortality: A primary care cohort study in the United Kingdom. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 113(8), 1461–1476. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.14188
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Home Office. (2019). Drug misuse: Findings from the 2018/19 Crime Survey for England and Wales. Home Office.
   Google Scholar
• Hughes, K., Bellis, M. A., Hardcastle, K. A., Sethi, D., Butchart, A., Mikton, C., Jones, L., & Dunne, M. P. (2017). The effect of multiple adverse childhood experiences on health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Public Health, 2(8), e356–e366. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(17)30118-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes, K., Bellis, M. A., Sethi, D., Andrew, R., Yon, Y., Wood, S., Ford, K., Baban, A., Boderscova, L., Kachaeva, M., Makaruk, K., Markovic, M., Povilaitis, R., Raleva, M., Terzic, N., Veleminsky, M., Włodarczyk, J., & Zakhozha, V. (2019). Adverse childhood experiences, childhood relationships and associated substance use and mental health in young Europeans. European Journal of Public Health, 29(4), 741–747. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckz037
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ISAJE. (2015). ISAJE Terminology Statement. Nordic Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 32(5), 539–540. https://doi.org/10.1515/nsad-2015-0051
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• jamovi project. (2019). jamovi (Version 1.0). https://www.jamovi.org
   Google Scholar
• Järvinen, M., & Demant, J. (2011). The normalisation of cannabis use among young people: Symbolic boundary work in focus groups. Health, Risk & Society, 13(2), 165–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/13698575.2011.556184
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnstone, M., Jetten, J., Dingle, G. A., Parsell, C., & Walter, Z. C. (2015). Discrimination and well-being amongst the homeless: The role of multiple group membership. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 739–739. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00739
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly, J. F., Dow, S. J., & Westerhoff, C. (2010). Does our choice of substance-related terms influence perceptions of treatment need? An empirical investigation with two commonly used terms. Journal of Drug Issues, 40(4), 805–818. https://doi.org/10.1177/002204261004000403
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly, J. F., Saitz, R., & Wakeman, S. E. (2016). Language, substance use disorders, and policy: The need to reach consensus on an “addiction-ary”. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 34(1), 116–123. https://doi.org/10.1080/07347324.2016.1113103
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly, J. F., & Westerhoff, C. M. (2010). Does it matter how we refer to individuals with substance-related conditions? A randomized study of two commonly used terms. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 21(3), 202–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2009.10.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kennedy-Hendricks, A., Barry, C. L., Gollust, S. E., Ensminger, M. E., Chisolm, M. S., & McGinty, E. E. (2017). Social stigma toward persons with prescription opioid use disorder: Associations with public support for punitive and public health-oriented policies. Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.), 68(5), 462–469. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201600056
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kennedy-Hendricks, A., Barry, C. L., & McGinty, E. E. (2016). Effects of competing narratives on public perceptions of opioid pain reliever addiction during pregnancy. Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law, 41(5), 873–916. https://doi.org/10.1215/03616878-3632230
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Konkolÿ Thege, B., Colman, I., el-Guebaly, N., Hodgins, D. C., Patten, S. B., Schopflocher, D., Wolfe, J., & Wild, T. C. (2015). Social judgments of behavioral versus substance-related addictions: A population-based study. Addictive Behaviors, 42, 24–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.10.025
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kulesza, M., Larimer, M. E., & Rao, D. (2013). Substance use related stigma: What we know and the way forward. Journal of Addictive Behaviors, Therapy & Rehabilitation, 2(2), 782. https://doi.org/10.4172/2324-9005.1000106
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kulesza, M., Matsuda, M., Ramirez, J. J., Werntz, A. J., Teachman, B. A., & Lindgren, K. P. (2016). Towards greater understanding of addiction stigma: Intersectionality with race/ethnicity and gender. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 169, 85–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.10.020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kulesza, M., Teachman, B. A., Werntz, A. J., Gasser, M. L., & Lindgren, K. P. (2015). Correlates of public support toward federal funding for harm reduction strategies. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy, 10(1), 25. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13011-015-0022-5
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kvaale, E. P., Haslam, N., & Gottdiener, W. H. (2013). The 'side effects' of medicalization: A meta-analytic review of how biogenetic explanations affect stigma. Clinical Psychology Review, 33(6), 782–794. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.06.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lancaster, K., Seear, K., & Ritter, A. (2017). Reducing stigma and discrimination for people experiencing problematic alcohol and other drug use. University of New South Wales.
   Google Scholar
• Larkings, J. S., & Brown, P. M. (2018). Do biogenetic causal beliefs reduce mental illness stigma in people with mental illness and in mental health professionals? A systematic review. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 27(3), 928–941. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12390
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2001). Conceptualizing stigma. Annual Review of Sociology, 27(1), 363–385. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.363
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2006). Stigma and its public health implications. The Lancet, 367(9509), 528–529. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68184-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linnemann, T., & Wall, T. (2013). ‘This is your face on meth’: The punitive spectacle of ‘white trash’ in the rural war on drugs. Theoretical Criminology, 17(3), 315–334. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362480612468934
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Livingston, J. D., Milne, T., Fang, M. L., & Amari, E. (2012). The effectiveness of interventions for reducing stigma related to substance use disorders: A systematic review. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 107(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03601.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lloyd, C. (2013). The stigmatization of problem drug users: A narrative literature review. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 20(2), 85–95. https://doi.org/10.3109/09687637.2012.743506
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lloyd, C., Stöver, H., Zurhold, H., & Hunt, N. (2017). Similar problems, divergent responses: Drug consumption room policies in the UK and Germany. Journal of Substance Use, 22(1), 66–70. https://doi.org/10.3109/14659891.2016.1143049
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luoma, J. B., Twohig, M. P., Waltz, T., Hayes, S. C., Roget, N., Padilla, M., & Fisher, G. (2007). An investigation of stigma in individuals receiving treatment for substance abuse. Addictive Behaviors, 32(7), 1331–1346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2006.09.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacCoun, R. J. (2013). Moral outrage and opposition to harm reduction. Criminal Law and Philosophy, 7(1), 83–98. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11572-012-9154-0
   Google Scholar
• Maiorano, A., Lasalvia, A., Sampogna, G., Pocai, B., Ruggeri, M., & Henderson, C. (2017). Reducing stigma in media professionals: Is there room for improvement? Results from a systematic review. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie, 62(10), 702–715. https://doi.org/10.1177/0706743717711172
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Markowitz, F. E., & Syverson, J. (2019). Race, gender, and homelessness stigma: Effects of perceived blameworthiness and dangerousness. Deviant Behavior, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2019.1706140
   Google Scholar
• Matheson, C., Jaffray, M., Ryan, M., Bond, C. M., Fraser, K., Kirk, M., & Liddell, D. (2014). Public opinion of drug treatment policy: Exploring the public's attitudes, knowledge, experience and willingness to pay for drug treatment strategies. International Journal of Drug Policy, 25(3), 407–415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2013.11.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGinty, E., Barry, C. L., Stone, E. M., Niederdeppe, J., Kennedy-Hendricks, A., Linden, S., & Sherman, S. G. (2018). Public support for safe consumption sites and syringe services programs to combat the opioid epidemic. Preventive Medicine, 111, 73–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2018.02.026
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGinty, E., Goldman, H. H., Pescosolido, B., & Barry, C. L. (2015). Portraying mental illness and drug addiction as treatable health conditions: Effects of a randomized experiment on stigma and discrimination. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 126, 73–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.12.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGinty, E., Kennedy-Hendricks, A., & Barry, C. L. (2019a). Stigma of addiction in the media. In J. D. Avery & J. J. Avery (Eds.), The stigma of addiction: An essential guide (pp. 201–214). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02580-9_11
   Google Scholar
• McGinty, E., Stone, E. M., Kennedy-Hendricks, A., & Barry, C. L. (2019b). Stigmatizing language in news media coverage of the opioid epidemic: Implications for public health. Preventive Medicine, 124, 110–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2019.03.018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meurk, C., Carter, A., Partridge, B., Lucke, J., & Hall, W. (2014). How is acceptance of the brain disease model of addiction related to Australians' attitudes towards addicted individuals and treatments for addiction? BMC Psychiatry, 14(1), 373. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-014-0373-x
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Neale, J., Nettleton, S., & Pickering, L. (2011). Recovery from problem drug use: What can we learn from the sociologist Erving Goffman? Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 18(1), 3–9. https://doi.org/10.3109/09687631003705546
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Dowd, A. (2018). Avoid stigmatising language for people who use drugs, global commission urges. BMJ, 360, k140. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.k140
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pennay, A. M., & Measham, F. C. (2016). The normalisation thesis – 20 years later. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 23(3), 187–189. https://doi.org/10.3109/09687637.2016.1173649
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phelan, J., Link, B. G., Moore, R. E., & Stueve, A. (1997). The stigma of homelessness: The impact of the label “homeless” on attitudes toward poor persons. Social Psychology Quarterly, 60(4), 323–337. https://doi.org/10.2307/2787093
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pierce, M., Bird, S. M., Hickman, M., Marsden, J., Dunn, G., Jones, A., & Millar, T. (2016). Impact of treatment for opioid dependence on fatal drug-related poisoning: A national cohort study in England. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 111(2), 298–308. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.13193
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piras, A. P., Preti, A., Moro, M. F., Giua, A., Sini, G., Piras, M., Pintus, M., Pintus, E., Manca, A., Cannas, G., Cossu, G., Angermeyer, M. C., & Carta, M. G. (2016). Does calling alcoholism an illness make a difference? The public image of alcoholism in Italy. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 166, 39–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.06.015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pivovarova, E., & Stein, M. D. (2019). In their own words: Language preferences of individuals who use heroin. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 114(10), 1785–1790. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.14699
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Platt, L., Minozzi, S., Reed, J., Vickerman, P., Hagan, H., French, C., Jordan, A., Degenhardt, L., Hope, V., Hutchinson, S., Maher, L., Palmateer, N., Taylor, A., Bruneau, J., Hickman, M. (2017). Needle syringe programmes and opioid substitution therapy for preventing hepatitis C transmission in people who inject drugs. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (9). https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD012021.pub2
   Google Scholar
• Radcliffe, P., & Stevens, A. (2008). Are drug treatment services only for 'thieving junkie scumbags'? Drug users and the management of stigmatised identities. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 67(7), 1065–1073. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.06.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao, H., Mahadevappa, H., Pillay, P., Sessay, M., Abraham, A., & Luty, J. (2009). A study of stigmatized attitudes towards people with mental health problems among health professionals. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 16(3), 279–284. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2850.2008.01369.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Read, J., Haslam, N., Sayce, L., & Davies, E. (2006). Prejudice and schizophrenia: A review of the 'mental illness is an illness like any other' approach. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 114(5), 303–318. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2006.00824.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rivera, A. V., DeCuir, J., Crawford, N. D., Amesty, S., & Lewis, C. F. (2014). Internalized stigma and sterile syringe use among people who inject drugs in New York City, 2010-2012. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 144, 259–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.09.778
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson, S. M. (2017). “Alcoholic” or “Person with alcohol use disorder”? Applying person-first diagnostic terminology in the clinical domain. Substance Abuse, 38(1), 9–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/08897077.2016.1268239
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson, S. M., & Adinoff, B. (2018). The mixed message behind “Medication-Assisted Treatment” for substance use disorder. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 44(2), 147–150. https://doi.org/10.1080/00952990.2017.1362419
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Room, R. (2005). Stigma, social inequality and alcohol and drug use. Drug and Alcohol Review, 24(2), 143–155. https://doi.org/10.1080/09595230500102434
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Room, R., Rehm, J., Trotter Ii, R., Paglia, A., & Üstün, T. B. (2001). Cross-cultural views on stigma, valuation, parity and societal values towards disability. In T. B. Üstün, S. Chatterji, J. E. Bickenbach, R. T. Trotter II, R. Room, J. Rehm, & S. Saxena (Eds.), Disability and culture: Universalism and diversity (pp. 247–291). Hogrefe & Huber Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Rusch, N., Evans-Lacko, S., & Thornicroft, G. (2012). What is a mental illness? Public views and their effects on attitudes and disclosure. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 46(7), 641–650. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867412438873
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell, C., Davies, J. B., & Hunter, S. C. (2011). Predictors of addiction treatment providers' beliefs in the disease and choice models of addiction. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 40(2), 150–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2010.09.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saitz, R. (2016). International statement recommending against the use of terminology that can stigmatize people. Journal of Addiction Medicine, 10(1), 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1097/ADM.0000000000000178
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sattler, S., Escande, A., Racine, E., & Goritz, A. S. (2017). Public stigma toward people with drug addiction: A factorial survey. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 78(3), 415–425. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2017.78.415
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scholten, W., Simon, O., Maremmani, I., Wells, C., Kelly, J. F., Hammig, R., & Radbruch, L. (2017). Access to treatment with controlled medicines rationale and recommendations for neutral, precise, and respectful language. Public Health, 153, 147–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2017.08.021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schomerus, G., Lucht, M., Holzinger, A., Matschinger, H., Carta, M. G., & Angermeyer, M. C. (2011). The stigma of alcohol dependence compared with other mental disorders: A review of population studies. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 46(2), 105–112. https://doi.org/10.1093/alcalc/agq089
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schomerus, G., Matschinger, H., & Angermeyer, M. C. (2014). Causal beliefs of the public and social acceptance of persons with mental illness: A comparative analysis of schizophrenia, depression and alcohol dependence. Psychological Medicine, 44(2), 303–314. https://doi.org/10.1017/S003329171300072X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shin, S. H., McDonald, S. E., & Conley, D. (2018). Patterns of adverse childhood experiences and substance use among young adults: A latent class analysis. Addictive Behaviors, 78, 187–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.11.020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singer, L. T., Moore, D. G., Min, M. O., Goodwin, J., Turner, J. J., Fulton, S., & Parrott, A. C. (2016). Motor delays in MDMA (ecstasy) exposed infants persist to 2years. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 54, 22–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ntt.2016.01.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singleton, N. (2010). Attitudes to drug dependence. Results from a survey of people living in private households in the UK. UK Drug Policy Commission.
   Google Scholar
• Skinner, N., Feather, N., Freeman, T., & Roche, A. M. (2007). Stigma and discrimination in health-care provision to drug users: The role of values, affect, and deservingness judgements. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 37(1), 163–186. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0021-9029.2007.00154.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, L. R., Earnshaw, V. A., Copenhaver, M. M., & Cunningham, C. O. (2016). Substance use stigma: Reliability and validity of a theory-based scale for substance-using populations. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 162(Supplement C), 34–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.02.019
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Soh, K. C., Lim, W. S., Cheang, K. M., & Chan, K. L. (2019). Stigma towards alcohol use disorder: Comparing healthcare workers with the general population. General Hospital Psychiatry, 58, 39–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2019.01.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sordo, L., Barrio, G., Bravo, M. J., Indave, B. I., Degenhardt, L., Wiessing, L., Ferri, M., & Pastor-Barriuso, R. (2017). Mortality risk during and after opioid substitution treatment: Systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. BMJ (Clinical Research ed.), 357, j1550. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.j1550
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sorsdahl, K., Stein, D. J., & Myers, B. (2012). Negative attributions towards people with substance use disorders in South Africa: Variation across substances and by gender. BMC Psychiatry, 12, 101–101. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-12-101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stafford, M., & Scott, R. (1986). Stigma deviance and social control: Some conceptual issues. In S. C. Ainlay, G. Becker, & L. M. Coleman (Eds.), The dilemma of difference (pp. 77–91). Plenum.
   Google Scholar
• Stangl, A. L., Earnshaw, V. A., Logie, C. H., van Brakel, W., C. Simbayi, L., Barré, I., & Dovidio, J. F. (2019). The Health Stigma and Discrimination Framework: A global, crosscutting framework to inform research, intervention development, and policy on health-related stigmas. BMC Medicine, 17(1), 31. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-019-1271-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stringer, K. L., & Baker, E. H. (2018). Stigma as a barrier to substance abuse treatment among those with unmet need: An analysis of parenthood and marital status. Journal of Family Issues, 39(1), 3–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X15581659
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• The Scottish Government. (2006). Scottish Social Attitudes Survey 2006: Public attitudes to homelessness. The Scottish Government.
   Google Scholar
• The Scottish Government. (2016). 2016 Scottish public attitudes towards people with drug dependence and people in recovery. The Scottish Government.
   Google Scholar
• The Scottish Government. (2018). Delivering for today, investing for tomorrow: The Government's programme for Scotland 2018-2019. Scottish Government.
   Google Scholar
• UK Drug Policy Commission. (2012). Dealing with the stigma of drugs: A guide for journalists. UK Drug Policy Commission.
   Google Scholar
• UKDPC. (2010). Getting serious about stigma: The problem with stigmatising drug users. UK Drug Policy Commission.
   Google Scholar
• UNODC. (2004). Drug abuse prevention among youth from ethnic and indigenous minorities. United Nations.
   Google Scholar
• van Boekel, L. C., Brouwers, E. P., van Weeghel, J., & Garretsen, H. F. (2013). Stigma among health professionals towards patients with substance use disorders and its consequences for healthcare delivery: Systematic review. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 131(1–2), 23–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.02.018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• von Hippel, W., Brener, L., & von Hippel, C. (2008). Implicit prejudice toward injecting drug users predicts intentions to change jobs among drug and alcohol nurses. Psychological Science, 19(1), 7–11. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02037.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wakeman, S. E. (2017). Medications for addiction treatment: Changing language to improve care. Journal of Addiction Medicine, 11(1), 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1097/ADM.0000000000000275
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiner, B. (1995). Judgments of responsibility: A foundation for a theory of social conduct. Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• West, M. L., Yanos, P. T., & Mulay, A. L. (2014). Triple stigma of forensic psychiatric patients: Mental illness, race, and criminal history. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health, 13(1), 75–90. https://doi.org/10.1080/14999013.2014.885471
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wincup, E., & Monaghan, M. (2016). Scrounger narratives and dependent drug users: Welfare, workfare and warfare. Journal of Poverty and Social Justice, 24(3), 261–275. https://doi.org/10.1332/175982716X14721954315084
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witte, T. H., Wright, A., & Stinson, E. A. (2019). Factors influencing stigma toward individuals who have substance use disorders. Substance Use & Misuse, 54(7), 1115–1124. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2018.1560469
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• YouGov & CDPRG. (2019). Public attitudes to drugs in the UK. Conservative Drug Policy Reform Group.
   Google Scholar