Inhaling thick smoke: cannabis subculture, community forming and socio-structural challenges in Nigeria

References

• Abiodun, O. A., Adelekan, M. L., Ogunremi, O. O., Oni, G. A., & Obayan, A. O. (1994). Psychosocial correlates of alcohol, tobacco and cannabis use amongst secondary school students in Ilorin, Nigeria. West African Journal of Medicine, 13(4), 213–217.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Asuni, T. (1964). Socio-psychiatric problems of cannabis in Nigeria. Bulletin on Narcotics, 16(2), 17–28.
   Google Scholar
• Becker, H. S. (1953). Becoming a marihuana user. American Journal of Sociology, 59(3), 235–242. https://doi.org/10.1086/221326
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becker, H. S. (1963). Outsiders: Studies in the sociology of deviance. The Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Belackova, V., & Vaccaro, C. A. (2013). “A friend with weed is a friend indeed” understanding the relationship between friendship identity and market relations among marijuana users. Journal of Drug Issues, 43(3), 289–313. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022042613475589
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blackman, S. (2014). Subculture theory: An historical and contemporary assessment of the concept for understanding deviance. Deviant Behavior, 35(6), 496–512. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2013.859049
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bobakova, D., Madarasova Geckova, A., Reijneveld, S. A., & van Dijk, J. P. (2012). Subculture affiliation is associated with substance use of adolescents. European Addiction Research, 18(2), 91–96. https://doi.org/10.1159/000334614
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carrier, N., & Klantschnig, G. (2018). Quasilegality: Khat, cannabis and Africa’s drug laws. Third World Quarterly, 39(2), 350–365. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2017.1368383
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiedozie, A. B. (2020). Counteracting the menace of corruption occasioned by police bail under the Nigerian criminal justice system. International Journal of Developing Country Studies, 2(1), 15–24.
   Google Scholar
• Coomber, R., & Turnbull, P. (2007). Arenas of drug transactions: Adolescent cannabis transactions in England—social supply. Journal of Drug Issues, 37(4), 845–865. https://doi.org/10.1177/002204260703700406
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dirisu, O., Shickle, D., & Elsey, H. (2019). Perspectives of young cannabis users within the Nigerian policy context: The paradox of criminalization as a deterrence strategy. Journal of Substance Use, 24(1), 73–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/14659891.2018.1510052
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dumbili, E. W. (2015). ‘What a man can do, a woman can do better’: Gendered alcohol consumption and (de)construction of social identity among young Nigerians. BMC Public Health, 15(1), 167. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-015-1499-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dumbili, E. W. (2020a). Cannabis normalization among young adults in a Nigerian city. Journal of Drug Issues, 50(3), 286–302. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022042620912805
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dumbili, E. W. (2020b). Drug-related harms among young adults in Nigeria: Implications for intervention. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 30(8), 1013–1029. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2020.1790462
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dumbili, E. W. (2022). ‘I just drink to feel abnormal for some time’: Reconfiguring heavy drinking and intoxication as pleasurable. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 99, 103454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2021.103454
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dumbili, E. W., Ezekwe, E., & Odeigah, O. W. (2020). From “Codeine diet” to “Gutter water”: Polydrug use among Nigerian young adults. Drugs and Alcohol Today, 20(2), 95–107. https://doi.org/10.1108/DAT-02-2020-0003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dumbili, E. W., Gardner, J., Degge, H. M., & Hanewinkel, R. (2021). Enhancement motivations for using prescription drugs among young adults in Nigeria. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 95, 102995. 102995-1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.102995
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dumbili, E. W., Hanewinkel, R., Degge, H. M., Ezekwe, E. C., & Nnajiofor, M. (2020). Cannabis use motivations: A study of young adults in Nigeria. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 1–10. Online First, https://doi.org/10.1080/09687637.2020.1834514
   Google Scholar
• Dumbili, E. W., & Henderson, L. (2017). Mediating alcohol use in eastern Nigeria: A qualitative study exploring the role of popular media in young people’s recreational drinking. Health Education Research, 32(3), 279–291. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cyx043
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dyregrov, K., & Selseng, L. B. (2021). “Nothing to mourn, he was just a drug addict”-stigma towards people bereaved by drug-related death. Addiction Research & Theory, 1–11. Online First. https://doi.org/10.1080/16066359.2021.1912327
   Google Scholar
• Fatoye, F., & Morakinyo, O. (2002). Substance use among secondary school students in rural and urban communities in southwestern Nigeria. East African Medical Journal, 79(6), 299–305. https://doi.org/10.4314/eamj.v79i6.8849
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ferraro, G., & Andreatta, S. (2014). Cultural anthropology: An applied perspective. Cengage Learning.
   Google Scholar
• Friedman, J., Syvertsen, J. L., Bourgois, P., Bui, A., Beletsky, L., & Pollini, R. (2021). Intersectional structural vulnerability to abusive policing among people who inject drugs: A mixed methods assessment in California’s central valley. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 87, 102981. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.102981
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goar, S. (2021). Criminalization versus decriminalization of cannabis use in Nigeria: What is the fuss about? Western Journal of Medical and Biomedical Sciences, 2(1), 53–56.
   Google Scholar
• Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. Penguin.
   Google Scholar
• Golub, A. L. (2005). The cultural/subcultural contexts of marijuana use at the turn of the twenty-first century. Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gouldner, A. W. (1960). The norm of reciprocity: A preliminary statement. American Sociological Review, 25(2), 161–178. https://doi.org/10.2307/2092623
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gureje, O., Degenhardt, L., Olley, B., Uwakwe, R., Udofia, O., Wakil, A., Adeyemi, O., Bohnert, K. M., & Anthony, J. C. (2007). A descriptive epidemiology of substance use and substance use disorders in nigeria during the early 21st century. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 91(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.04.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gureje, O., & Olley, D. (1992). Alcohol and drug abuse in Nigeria: A review of the literature. Contemp.Drug Probs, 19(3), 491–504.
   Google Scholar
• Haines, R. J., Johnson, J. L., Carter, C. I., & Arora, K. (2009). “I couldn’t say, I’m not a girl”–Adolescents talk about gender and marijuana use. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 68(11), 2029–2036. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.03.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hammersley, R., Jenkins, R., & Reid, M. (2001). Cannabis use and social identity. Addiction Research & Theory, 9(2), 133–150. https://doi.org/10.3109/16066350109141745
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hathaway, A. D., Comeau, N. C., & Erickson, P. G. (2011). Cannabis normalization and stigma: Contemporary practices of moral regulation. Criminology & Criminal Justice, 11(5), 451–469. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748895811415345
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hatzenbuehler, M. L., & Link, B. G. (2014). Introduction to the special issue on structural stigma and health. Social Science & Medicine, 103, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.12.017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hebdige, D. (2003). Subculture: The meaning of style (2nd ed.). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Hemsing, N., & Greaves, L. (2020). Gender norms, roles and relations and cannabis-use patterns: A scoping review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(3), 947. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17030947
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herbert, S., Beckett, K., & Stuart, F. (2018). Policing social marginality: Contrasting approaches. Law & Social Inquiry, 43(04), 1491–1513. https://doi.org/10.1111/lsi.12287
   Google Scholar
• Ikuesan, B. A. (1994). Drinking problems and the position of women in Nigeria. Addiction (Abingdon, England), 89(8), 941–944. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.1994.tb03349.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Järvinen, M., & Ravn, S. (2014). Cannabis careers revisited: Applying Howard S. Becker’s theory to present-day cannabis use. Social Science & Medicine, 100, 133–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.11.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, B. D. (1973). Marihuana users and drug subcultures. John Wiley & Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, B. D., Bardhi, F., Sifaneck, S. J., & Dunlap, E. (2006). Marijuana argot as subculture threads: Social constructions by users in New York city. The British Journal of Criminology, 46(1), 46–77. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azi053
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly, B. C. (2005). Bongs and blunts: Notes from a suburban marijuana subculture. Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse, 4(3-4), 81–97. https://doi.org/10.1300/J233v04n03_04
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kitause, R. H., & Achunike, H. C. (2013). Religion in Nigeria from 1900-2013. Religion, 3(18), 45–57.
   Google Scholar
• Knorre, A. (2020). Do Russian police fabricate drug offenses? Evidence from seized heroin’s weight distribution. Journal of Drug Issues, 50(4), 378–391. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022042620918951
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2001). Conceptualizing stigma. Annual Review of Sociology, 27(1), 363–385. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.363
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madukwe, A. U., & Klein, A. (2019). Tramadol as a pain relieving and physical work performance enhancement medication. Drugs and Alcohol Today, 20(1), 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1108/DAT-06-2019-0027
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mauss, M. (2002). The gift: The form and reason for exchange in archaic societies. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Measham, F., Newcombe, R., & Parker, H. (1994). The normalization of recreational drug use amongst young people in north-west England. The British Journal of Sociology, 45(2), 287–312. https://doi.org/10.2307/591497
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mjåland, K. (2014). ‘A culture of sharing’: Drug exchange in a Norwegian prison. Punishment & Society, 16(3), 336–352. https://doi.org/10.1177/1462474514527149
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morakinyo, O. (1983). Aversion therapy of cannabis dependence in Nigeria. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 12(3), 287–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/0376-8716(83)90072-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Bureau of Statistics. (2011). Annual abstract of statistics, 2011. National Bureau of Statistics.
   Google Scholar
• Nelson, E. (2018). Police crackdowns, structural violence and impact on the well-being of street cannabis users in a Nigerian city. The International Journal on Drug Policy, 54, 114–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.01.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson, E. E. (2021a). Intersectional analysis of cannabis use, stigma and health among marginalized Nigerian women. Sociology of Health & Illness, 43(3), 660–677. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9566.13244
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson, E. E. (2021b). ‘I take it to relax… and chill’: Perspectives on cannabis use from marginalized Nigerian young adults. Addiction Research & Theory, 29(6), 490–410. Online First. https://doi.org/10.1080/16066359.2021.1895125
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nnam, M. U., Owan, E. J., Idike, A. N., Ibiam, O. E., Agboti, C. I., Kanu, C., & Okechukwu, G. (2020). Voices from ‘Igbo bunks’: A qualitative study of the complicity of law-enforcement agents in marijuana use in a Nigerian community. International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice, 62, 100411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlcj.2020.100411
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nnebe, O. (1988). The social-economic determinants of drug abuse in Nigeria (pp. 11–14). Federal Ministry of Health Handbook.
   Google Scholar
• Oye-Adeniran, B., Aina, O., Gbadegesin, A., & Ekanem, E. (2014). Substance use and sexual behaviour among female students in Nigerian universities. International Quarterly of Community Health Education, 35(1), 73–83. https://doi.org/10.2190/IQ.35.1.f
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Parker, H. J., Parker, H., Aldridge, J., & Measham, F. (1998). Illegal leisure: The normalization of adolescent recreational drug use. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Pedersen, W. (2009). Cannabis use: Subcultural opposition or social marginality? A population-based longitudinal study. Acta Sociologica, 52(2), 135–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001699309104001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peretti‐Watel, P. (2003). Neutralization theory and the denial of risk: Some evidence from cannabis use among French adolescents. The British Journal of Sociology, 54(1), 21–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/0007131032000045888
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Power, R. (1989). Participant observation and its place in the study of illicit drug abuse. British Journal of Addiction, 84(1), 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.1989.tb00550.x
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Saldaña, J. (2013). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Sandberg, S. (2012). Is cannabis use normalized, celebrated or neutralized? Analysing talk as action. Addiction Research & Theory, 20(5), 372–381. https://doi.org/10.3109/16066359.2011.638147
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandberg, S. (2013). Cannabis culture: A stable subculture in a changing world. Criminology & Criminal Justice, 13(1), 63–79. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748895812445620
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarang, A., Rhodes, T., Sheon, N., & Page, K. (2010). Policing drug users in Russia: Risk, fear, and structural violence. Substance Use & Misuse, 45(6), 813–864. https://doi.org/10.3109/10826081003590938
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sheehan, L., & Corrigan, P. (2020). Stigma of disease and its impact on health. The Wiley encyclopaedia of health psychology (pp. 57–65) Wiley Online Library.
   Google Scholar
• Shehu, A., & Idris, S. (2008). Marijuana smoking among secondary school students in Zaria, Nigeria: Factors responsible and effects on academic performance. Annals of African Medicine, 7(4), 175. https://doi.org/10.4103/1596-3519.55657
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shiner, M. (2009). Drug use and social change: The distortion of history. Palgrave.
   Google Scholar
• Shiner, M., & Newburn, T. (1997). Definitely, maybe not? The normalisation of recreational drug use amongst young people. Sociology, 31(3), 511–529. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038597031003008
   Google Scholar
• Smeja, C. M., & Rojek, D. G. (1986). Youthful drug use and drug subcultures. International Journal of the Addictions, 21(9–10), 1031–1050. https://doi.org/10.3109/10826088609077253
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stafford, M. C., & Scott, R. R. (1986). Stigma, deviance, and social control. In S. C. Ainlay, G. Becker, & L. M. Coleman (Eds.), The dilemma of difference (pp. 77–91). Plenum.
   Google Scholar
• Swidler, A. (1986). Culture in action: Symbols and strategies. American Sociological Review, 51(2), 273–286. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095521
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thornton, S. (1995). Club cultures: Music, media, and sub-cultural capital. Polity press.
   Google Scholar
• Tong, A., Sainsbury, P., & Craig, J. (2007). Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research (COREQ): A 32-item checklist for interviews and focus groups. International Journal for Quality in Health Care, 19(6), 349–357. https://doi.org/10.1093/intqhc/mzm042
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uchendu, E. (2007). Masculinity and Nigerian youths. Nordic Journal of African Studies, 16(2), 279–297.
   Google Scholar
• Umunna, I. (1967). The drinking culture of a Nigerian community: Onitsha. Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 28(3), 529–537. https://doi.org/10.15288/qjsa.1967.28.529
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2018). Drug use in Nigeria. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.
   Google Scholar
• United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2021). Drug prevention, treatment and control. https://www.unodc.org/nigeria/en/drug-prevention-treatment-and-control.html
   Google Scholar
• Zimmerman, D. H., & Wieder, D. L. (1977). You can’t help but get stoned notes on the social organization of marijuana smoking. Social Problems, 25(2), 198–207. https://doi.org/10.2307/800295
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar