Private security contractors and international humanitarian law—a skirmish for recognition in international armed conflicts

References

• Amnesty International . 2006 . Private military contractors: questions and answers [online] Available at www.amnestyusa.org/business/pmc/HousePartyToolKit.pdf [accessed 13 August 2007].
   Google Scholar
• AP I (Additional Protocol I) . Protocol additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the protection of victims of international armed conflicts
   Google Scholar
• Blain , B . 2007 . The role of private and mercenary armies in international conflict [online] Available at www.informationclearinghouse.info/article3396.htm [accessed 15 August 2007].
   Google Scholar
• Brooks , D . 2002 . Protecting people: the PMC potential: comments and suggestions for the UK green paper on regulating private military services 25 July. Available at http://www.hoosier84.com/0725brookspmcregs.pdf [accessed 25 August 2007]
   Google Scholar
• Cameron , L . International humanitarian law and the regulation of private military companies . Conference on non-state actors as standard setters: the erosion of the public-private divide [online] . Switzerland. Plenary lecture . February. Available at www.baselgovernance.org/fileadmin/docs/pdfs/Nonstate/Cameron.pdf [accessed 20 August 2007].
   Google Scholar
• Cameron , L . 2006 . Private military companies: their status under international humanitarian law and its impact of their regulation . IRRC , 88 ( 863 ) : 573
   Google Scholar
• Committee of privy counsellors appointed to inquire into the recruitment of mercenaries . 1976 . (Diplock Report) (Cmnd 5185) , London : HMSO .
   Google Scholar
• Dunlap , C J . Law and military interventions: preserving humanitarian values in 21st century conflicts . Conference on humanitarian challenges in military intervention [online] . Washington, DC : Carr Center for Human Rights Policy, Kennedy school of government, Harvard University . November 29. Available at www.duke.edu/~pfeaver/dunlap.pdf [accessed 23 August 2007].
   Google Scholar
• Dworkin , A . 2004 . Security contractors in Iraq: armed guards or private soldiers. Crimes of war project [online] Available at www.crimesofwar.org/onnews/news-security.html [accessed 27 August 2007].
   Google Scholar
• Elsea , J K and Serafino , N M . 2004 . Private security contractors in Iraq: background, legal status, and other issues [online] Available at www.opencrs.com/document/RL32419/ [accessed 28 August 2007].
   Google Scholar
• Exparte Quirin . 1942 . 317 US 1
   Google Scholar
• Fallah , K . 2006 . Corporate actors: the legal status of mercenaries in armed conflict . IRRC , 88 ( 863 ) : 599
   Google Scholar
• Gasser , H P . 1995 . “ Protection of the civilian population. ” . In The handbook of humanitarian law in armed conflict , Edited by: Fleck , D . Oxford : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• GC (Geneva Convention) (I) for the amelioration of the condition of the wounded and sick in armed forces in the field. GC (II) for the amelioration of the condition of wounded, sick and shipwrecked members of armed forces at sea
   Google Scholar
• 12 August 1949 . GC (III) relative to the treatment of prisoners of war 12 August ,
   Google Scholar
• 12 August 1949 . GC (IV) relative to the protection of civilian persons in time of war 12 August ,
   Google Scholar
• Gillard , E-C . 2006 . Business goes to war: private military/security companies and international humanitarian law . IRRC , 88 ( 863 ) : 525
   Google Scholar
• Gomez , I . 2000 . US mercenaries in Colombia Colombia report, 16 July [online]. Available at www.colombiareport.org/colombia19.html [accessed 16 August 2007].
   Google Scholar
• Henckaerts , J M and Doswald-Beck , L . 2005 . Customary international humanitarian law. ICRC Rules, volume I , Cambridge, Mass : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Holmqvist , C . 2005 . Private security companies: the case for regulation , Stockholm : SIPRI . SIPRI Policy Paper no. 9
   Google Scholar
• HR (Hague Regulations) (IV) . 1907 . The convention (IV) respecting the laws and customs of war on land and its annex: regulations concerning the laws and customs of war on land, 18 October
   Google Scholar
• HR (V) . 1907 . The convention (V) respecting the rights and duties of neutral powers and persons in case of war on land
   Google Scholar
• Human Rights Watch . 2003 . Backgrounder: international humanitarian law issues in a potential war in Iraq [online] Available at atwww.hrw.org/backgrounder/arms/iraq0202003.htm [accessed 25 August 2007]
   Google Scholar
• ICRC (International Committee of the Red Cross) . 2006a . International humanitarian law and private military/security companies, 2006 [online] Available at www.icrc.org/web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/html/pmc-fac-230506 [accessed 26 August 2007].
   Google Scholar
• ICRC . 2006b . Privatisation of war: the outsourcing of military tasks [online] Available at www.icrc.org/web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/privatisation-war-230506 [accessed 15 August 2007].
   Google Scholar
• ICRC . 2003–2005 . Expert meeting: direct participation in hostilities under international humanitarian law ICRC Expert Meetings, 2 June 2003 (the Hague); 25–26 October 2004 (The Hague); 23–25 October 2005 (Geneva)
   Google Scholar
• ICRC . 1977 . Commentary to AP I . International legal materials , 16 ( 4 ) : 1391 Ibrahim v Titan [2004] civil action no 04–1248 (JR)
   Google Scholar
• Ipsen , K . 1995 . “ Combatants and non-combatants. ” . In The handbook of humanitarian law in armed conflict , Edited by: Fleck , D . Oxford : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Jennings , K M . 2006 . Armed services: regulating the private military industry . New Security Programme , Fafo Report 532
   Google Scholar
• Lilly , D . 2000 . The privatization of peacekeeping: prospects and realities in peace keeping evolution or extinction? . United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research Periodical , 2000 : 3 [online]. Available at www.unidir.org/bdd/fiche-periodique.php?ref_periodique=1020–7287–2000–3-en [accessed 12 August 2007]
   Google Scholar
• Major , M F . 1992 . Mercenaries and international law . Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law , 22
   Google Scholar
• Maogoto , J M . 2006 . Contemporary private military firms under international law: an unregulated ‘gold rush’ . Bepress legal series , paper 1345
   Google Scholar
• OAU (Organisation of African Unity) . 1977 . The convention for the elimination of mercenarism in Africa (OAU Mercenary convention) . OAU , CM/817 ( XXXIX ) Annex II Rev. 3
   Google Scholar
• O'Brien , K . 2006 . Private military companies: options for regulation , Cambridge : RAND Europe .
   Google Scholar
• Oeter , S . 1995 . “ Methods and means of combat. ” . In The handbook of humanitarian law in armed conflict , Edited by: Fleck , D . Oxford : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Parrish , R . 2007 . The international legal status of voluntary human shields [online] Available at www.polisci.wisc.edu [accessed 25 August 2007].
   Google Scholar
• Pictet , J . 1952 . The Geneva conventions of 1949: commentary on Geneva convention IV , Geneva : ICRC .
   Google Scholar
• Pictet , J , Pilloud , de Preux , Zimmermann , J , Eberlin , P , Gasser , H P and Wenger , C . 1987 . Commentary on the additional protocols of 8 June 1977 to the Geneva conventions of 12 August 1949 , Geneva : Martinus Nijhoff Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• Prosecutor v Dusko Tadic . 1997 . Case ICTYIT-94–1, opinion and judgment, 7 May
   Google Scholar
• RSA (Republic of South Africa) . 1998 . Foreign Military Assistance Act, 1998 (Act 15 of 1998) , Pretoria : Government Printer . Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, 2187 UNTS 90
   Google Scholar
• Rothwell , D . 2004 . Legal opinion on the status of non-combatants and contractors under international humanitarian law and Australian law [online] Available at www.aspi.org.au/pdf/ASPIlegalopinion_contractors.pdf [accessed 20 August 2007].
   Google Scholar
• Saleh v Titan . 2004 . Case no 04CV1143 R (NLS)
   Google Scholar
• Sandos , Y . 1957 . International Committee of the Red Cross commentary on the additional protocols of 8 June 1977 to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 , Geneva : ICRC .
   Google Scholar
• Sandoz , Y . 1999 . “ Private security and international law. ” . In Peace, profit or plunder? The privatisation of security in war-torn African societies , Edited by: Cilliers , J and Mason , P . South Africa : Institute for Security Studies .
   Google Scholar
• Schmitt , M . 2004 . Humanitarian law and direct participation in hostilities by private contractors or civilian employees . Chicago Journal of International Law , 5 ( 2 ) : 41 Winter.
   Google Scholar
• Schmitt , M . 2005 . War, international law and sovereignty: re-evaluating the rules of the game in a new century: humanitarian law and direct participation in hostilities by private contractors or civilian employees . Chicago Journal of International Law , 5 ( 2 ) : 511
   Google Scholar
• Shearer , D . 1998 . Globalisation at work: outsourcing war, foreign policy. Fall [online] Available at www.foreignpolicy.com/fall98/articles/art1.htm [accessed 15 August 2007].
   Google Scholar
• Singer , P . 2003 . Corporate warriors: the rise of the privatised military industry , London : Cornell University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Singer , P . 1994 . War, profits and the vacuum of law: privatized military firms and international law . Columbia Journal of Transnational Law , 42 ( 2 ) : 522
   Google Scholar
• Source Watch, Private military corporations [online] Available at www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Private_Military_Corporations/list_of_PMCs [accessed 27 August 2007].
   Google Scholar
• UK (United Kingdom) Foreign and Commonwealth Office . 2002 . Private military companies: options for regulation (UK green paper) , London : HMSO .
   Google Scholar
• UN (United Nations) . 2005 . Report on the third meeting of experts on traditional and new forms of mercenary activity UN Doc. E/CN.4/2005/23
   Google Scholar
• UN . 1997 . Report on the question of the use of mercenaries as a means of violating human rights and impeding the exercise of the right of peoples to self determination UN doc/CN.4/1997/24
   Google Scholar
• UN . 2001 . International convention against the recruitment, use, financing and training of mercenaries (UN Mercenaries Convention) UN General Assembly resolution A/RES/44/34
   Google Scholar
• US Department of Defence . 2005 . Instruction 3020.41 on contractor personnel editorised to accompany the US armed forces [online] Available at www.dtic.mil/whs/directives/corres/pdf/302041p.pdf [accessed 1 September 2007].
   Google Scholar