Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity in post-traumatic stress disorder and cocaine use disorder

References

• Ahmed, S. H., & Koob, G. F. (1998). Transition from moderate to excessive drug intake: Change in hedonic set point. Science, 282(5387), 298–300. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.282.5387.298
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association.
   Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). American Psychiatric Association.
   Google Scholar
• Back, S. E., Brady, K. T., Jaanimagi, U., & Jackson, J. L. (2006). Cocaine dependence and PTSD: A pilot study of symptom interplay and treatment preferences. Addictive Behaviors, 31(2), 351–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2005.05.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Back, S. E., Sonne, S. C., Killeen, T., Dansky, B. S., & Brady, K. T. (2003). Comparative profiles of women with PTSD and comorbid cocaine or alcohol dependence. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 29(1), 169–189. https://doi.org/10.1081/ada-120018845
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Back, S., Dansky, B. S., Coffey, S. F., Saladin, M. E., Sonne, S., & Brady, K. T. (2000). Cocaine dependence with and without post-traumatic stress disorder: A comparison of substance use, trauma history and psychiatric comorbidity. The American Journal on Addictions, 9(1), 51–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/10550490050172227
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baum, A., & Grunberg, N. (1995). Measurement of stress hormones. In S. Cohen, R. C. Kessler, & L. U. Gordon (Eds.), Measuring stress (pp. 175–191). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Boyson, C. O., Holly, E. N., Shimamoto, A., Albrechet-Souza, L., Weiner, L. A., DeBold, J. F., & Miczek, K. A. (2014). Social stress and CRF-dopamine interactions in the VTA: Role in long-term escalation of cocaine self-administration. The Journal of Neuroscience : The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 34(19), 6659–6667. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3942-13.2014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breslau, N. (2001). The epidemiology of posttraumatic stress disorder: What is the extent of the problem? The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 62 (Suppl 17), 16–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breslau, N., Davis, G. C., & Schultz, L. R. (2003). Posttraumatic stress disorder and the incidence of nicotine, alcohol, and other drug disorders in persons who have experienced trauma. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60(3), 289–294. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.60.3.289
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breslau, N., Davis, G. C., Andreski, P., & Peterson, E. (1991). Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48(3), 216–222. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1991.01810270028003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breslau, N., Kessler, R. C., Chilcoat, H. D., Schultz, L. R., Davis, G. C., & Andreski, P. (1998). Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in the community: The 1996 Detroit Area Survey of Trauma. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55(7), 626–632. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.55.7.626
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broadbear, J. H., Winger, G., Cicero, T. J., & Woods, J. H. (1999a). Effects of self-administered cocaine on plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol in male rhesus monkeys. The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 289(3), 1641–1647.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broadbear, J. H., Winger, G., & Woods, J. H. (1999b). Cocaine-reinforced responding in rhesus monkeys: Pharmacological attenuation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis response. The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 290(3), 1347–1355.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brodnik, Z. D., Black, E. M., Clark, M. J., Kornsey, K. N., Snyder, N. W., & España, R. A. (2017). Susceptibility to traumatic stress sensitizes the dopaminergic response to cocaine and increases motivation for cocaine. Neuropharmacology, 125, 295–307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.07.032
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, P. J., & Wolfe, J. (1994). Substance abuse and post-traumatic stress disorder comorbidity. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 35(1), 51–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/0376-8716(94)90110-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, P. J., Recupero, P. R., & Stout, R. (1995). PTSD substance abuse comorbidity and treatment utilization. Addictive Behaviors, 20(2), 251–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/0306-4603(94)00060-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buydens-Branchey, L., Branchey, M., Hudson, J., & Dorota Majewska, M. (2002). Perturbations of plasma cortisol and DHEA-S following discontinuation of cocaine use in cocaine addicts. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 27(1–2), 83–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0306-4530(01)00037-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chilcoat, H. D., & Breslau, N. (1998). Investigations of causal pathways between PTSD and drug use disorders. Addictive Behaviors, 23(6), 827–840. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0306-4603(98)00069-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Childress, A. R., Ehrman, R., McLellan, A. T., MacRae, J., Natale, M., & O'Brien, C. P. (1994). Can induced moods trigger drug-related responses in opiate abuse patients? Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 11(1), 17–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/0740-5472(94)90060-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, H., Kozlovsky, N., Alona, C., Matar, M. A., & Joseph, Z. (2012). Animal model for PTSD: From clinical concept to translational research. Neuropharmacology, 62(2), 715–724. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.04.023
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, H., Maayan, R., Touati-Werner, D., Kaplan, Z., A Matar, M., Loewenthal, U., Kozlovsky, N., & Weizman, R. (2007). Decreased circulatory levels of neuroactive steroids in behaviourally more extremely affected rats subsequent to exposure to a potentially traumatic experience. The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 10(2), 203–209. https://doi.org/10.1017/s146114570600664x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, H., Matar, M. A., Buskila, D., Kaplan, Z., & Zohar, J. (2008). Early post-stressor intervention with high-dose corticosterone attenuates posttraumatic stress response in an animal model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 64(8), 708–717. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.05.025
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, H., & Zohar, J. (2004). An animal model of posttraumatic stress disorder: The use of cut-off behavioral criteria. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1032, 167–178. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1314.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, H., Zohar, J., Gidron, Y., Matar, M. A., Belkind, D., Loewenthal, U., Kozlovsky, N., & Kaplan, Z. (2006). Blunted HPA axis response to stress influences susceptibility to posttraumatic stress response in rats. Biological Psychiatry, 59(12), 1208–1218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.12.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, H., Zohar, J., & Matar, M. (2003). The relevance of differential response to trauma in an animal model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 53(6), 463–473. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(02)01909-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, H., Zohar, J., Matar, M. A., Kaplan, Z., & Geva, A. B. (2005). Unsupervised fuzzy clustering analysis supports behavioral cutoff criteria in an animal model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 58(8), 640–650. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.04.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Contoreggi, C., Herning, R. I., Koeppl, B., Simpson, P. M., Negro, P. J., Jr., Fortner-Burton, C., & Hess, J. (2003). Treatment-seeking inpatient cocaine abusers show hypothalamic dysregulation of both basal prolactin and cortisol secretion. Neuroendocrinology, 78(3), 154–162. doi: 72797. https://doi.org/10.1159/000072797
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daskalakis, N. P., Cohen, H., Cai, G., Buxbaum, J. D., & Yehuda, R. (2014). Expression profiling associates blood and brain glucocorticoid receptor signaling with trauma-related individual differences in both sexes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(37), 13529–13534. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1401660
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Kloet, E. R., Joels, M., & Holsboer, F. (2005). Stress and the brain: From adaptation to disease. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 6(6), 463–475. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1683
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Kloet, E. R., Oitzl, M. S., & Joels, M. (1999). Stress and cognition: Are corticosteroids good or bad guys? Trends in Neurosciences, 22(10), 422–426. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0166-2236(99)01438-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Kloet, C. S., Vermetten, E., Bikker, A., Meulman, E., Geuze, E., Kavelaars, A., Westenberg, H. G. M., & Heijnen, C. J. (2007). Leukocyte glucocorticoid receptor expression and immunoregulation in veterans with and without post-traumatic stress disorder. Molecular Psychiatry, 12(5), 443–453. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.mp.4001934
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Kloet, E. R., Vreugdenhil, E., Oitzl, M. S., & Joels, M. (1998). Brain corticosteroid receptor balance in health and disease. Endocrine Reviews, 19(3), 269–301. https://doi.org/10.1210/edrv.19.3.0331
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delahanty, D. L., Gabert-Quillen, C., Ostrowski, S. A., Nugent, N. R., Fischer, B., Morris, A., Pitman, R. K., Bon, J., & Fallon, W. (2013). The efficacy of initial hydrocortisone administration at preventing posttraumatic distress in adult trauma patients: A randomized trial. CNS Spectrums, 18(2), 103–111. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1092852913000096
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delahanty, D. L., Raimonde, A. J., & Spoonster, E. (2000). Initial posttraumatic urinary cortisol levels predict subsequent PTSD symptoms in motor vehicle accident victims. Biological Psychiatry, 48(9), 940–947. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(00)00896-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deroche, V., Marinelli, M., Le Moal, M., & Piazza, P. V. (1997). Glucocorticoids and behavioral effects of psychostimulants. II: Cocaine intravenous self-administration and reinstatement depend on glucocorticoid levels. The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 281(3), 1401–1407.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dworkin, E. R., Wanklyn, S., Stasiewicz, P. R., & Coffey, S. F. (2018). PTSD symptom presentation among people with alcohol and drug use disorders: Comparisons by substance of abuse. Addictive Behaviors, 76, 188–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.08.019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehring, T., Ehlers, A., Cleare, A. J., & Glucksman, E. (2008). Do acute psychological and psychobiological responses to trauma predict subsequent symptom severities of PTSD and depression? Psychiatry Research, 161(1), 67–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2007.08.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elman, I., Breiter, H. C., Gollub, R. L., Krause, S., Kantor, H. L., Baumgartner, W. A., Gastfriend, D. R., & Rosen, B. R. (1999). Depressive symptomatology and cocaine-induced pituitary-adrenal axis activation in individuals with cocaine dependence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 56(1), 39–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0376-8716(99)00009-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epstein, D. H., Preston, K. L., Stewart, J., & Shaham, Y. (2006). Toward a model of drug relapse: An assessment of the validity of the reinstatement procedure. Psychopharmacology, 189(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-006-0529-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erb, S., Shaham, Y., & Stewart, J. (1996). Stress reinstates cocaine-seeking behavior after prolonged extinction and a drug-free period. Psychopharmacology, 128(4), 408–412. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002130050150
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erb, S., Shaham, Y., & Stewart, J. (1998). The role of corticotropin-releasing factor and corticosterone in stress- and cocaine-induced relapse to cocaine seeking in rats. The Journal of Neuroscience : The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 18(14), 5529–5536. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.18-14-05529.1998
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feldman, D., Mondon, C. E., Horner, J. A., & Weiser, J. N. (1979). Glucocorticoid and estrogen regulation of corticosteroid-binding globulin production by rat liver. The American Journal of Physiology, 237(6), E493–E499. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.1979.237.6.E493
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fox, H. C., Hong, K. A., Paliwal, P., Morgan, P. T., & Sinha, R. (2008). Altered levels of sex and stress steroid hormones assessed daily over a 28-day cycle in early abstinent cocaine-dependent females. Psychopharmacology, 195(4), 527–536. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-007-0936-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fox, H. C., Jackson, E. D., & Sinha, R. (2009). Elevated cortisol and learning and memory deficits in cocaine dependent individuals: Relationship to relapse outcomes. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34(8), 1198–1207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.03.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galici, R., Pechnick, R. N., Poland, R. E., & France, C. P. (2000). Comparison of noncontingent versus contingent cocaine administration on plasma corticosterone levels in rats. European Journal of Pharmacology, 387(1), 59–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0014-2999(99)00780-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilpin, N. W., & Weiner, J. L. (2017). Neurobiology of comorbid post-traumatic stress disorder and alcohol-use disorder. Genes, Brain, and Behavior, 16(1), 15–43. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12349
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goeders, N. E., & Guerin, G. F. (1996). Effects of surgical and pharmacological adrenalectomy on the initiation and maintenance of intravenous cocaine self-administration in rats. Brain Research, 722(1-2), 145–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(96)00206-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griffin, M. G., Resick, P. A., & Yehuda, R. (2005). Enhanced cortisol suppression following dexamethasone administration in domestic violence survivors. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(6), 1192–1199. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.162.6.1192
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hadad, N. A., Wu, L., Hiller, H., Krause, E. G., Schwendt, M., & Knackstedt, L. A. (2016). Conditioned stress prevents cue-primed cocaine reinstatement only in stress-responsive rats. Stress (Amsterdam, Netherlands)), 19(4), 406–418. https://doi.org/10.1080/10253890.2016.1189898
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herman, J. P., McKlveen, J. M., Solomon, M. B., Carvalho-Netto, E., & Myers, B. (2012). Neural regulation of the stress response: Glucocorticoid feedback mechanisms. Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research = Revista Brasileira de Pesquisas Medicas e Biologicas, 45(4), 292–298. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-879X2012007500041
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hidalgo, R. B., & Davidson, J. R. (2000). Posttraumatic stress disorder: Epidemiology and health-related considerations. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 61 (Suppl 7), 5–13.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hruska, B., & Delahanty, D. L. (2014). PTSD-SUD biological mechanisms: Self-medication and beyond. In P. Ouimette & J. P. Read (eds.), Trauma and substance abuse: Causes, consequences, and treatment of comorbid disorders (2nd ed., pp. 35–52). American Psychological Association.
   Google Scholar
• Kessler, R. C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., & Nelson, C. B. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52(12), 1048–1060. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1995.03950240066012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khoury, L., Tang, Y. L., Bradley, B., Cubells, J. F., & Ressler, K. J. (2010). Substance use, childhood traumatic experience, and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in an urban civilian population. Depression and Anxiety, 27(12), 1077–1086. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20751
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klaassens, E. R., Giltay, E. J., Cuijpers, P., van Veen, T., & Zitman, F. G. (2012). Adulthood trauma and HPA-axis functioning in healthy subjects and PTSD patients: A meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 37(3), 317–331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2011.07.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kozlovsky, N., Matar, M. A., Kaplan, Z., Zohar, J., & Cohen, H. (2009). A distinct pattern of intracellular glucocorticoid-related responses is associated with extreme behavioral response to stress in an animal model of post-traumatic stress disorder. European Neuropsychopharmacology : The Journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 19(11), 759–771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2009.04.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kudler, H., Davidson, J., Meador, K., Lipper, S., & Ely, T. (1987). The DST and posttraumatic stress disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 144(8), 1068–1071. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.144.8.1068
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Labonte, B., Azoulay, N., Yerko, V., Turecki, G., & Brunet, A. (2014). Epigenetic modulation of glucocorticoid receptors in posttraumatic stress disorder. Translational Psychiatry, 4(3), e368. https://doi.org/10.1038/tp.2014.3
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Liberzon, I., Abelson, J. L., Flagel, S. B., Raz, J., & Young, E. A. (1999). Neuroendocrine and psychophysiologic responses in PTSD: A symptom provocation study. Neuropsychopharmacology : Official Publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 21(1), 40–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0893-133X(98)00128-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindley, S. E., Carlson, E. B., & Benoit, M. (2004). Basal and dexamethasone suppressed salivary cortisol concentrations in a community sample of patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 55(9), 940–945. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2003.12.021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Litt, M. D., Cooney, N. L., Kadden, R. M., & Gaupp, L. (1990). Reactivity to alcohol cues and induced moods in alcoholics. Addictive Behaviors, 15(2), 137–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/0306-4603(90)90017-R
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynch, W. J., Nicholson, K. L., Dance, M. E., Morgan, R. W., & Foley, P. L. (2010). Animal models of substance abuse and addiction: Implications for science, animal welfare, and society. Comparative Medicine, 60(3), 177–188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mantsch, J. R., Cullinan, W. E., Tang, L. C., Baker, D. A., Katz, E. S., Hoks, M. A., & Ziegler, D. R. (2007). Daily cocaine self-administration under long-access conditions augments restraint-induced increases in plasma corticosterone and impairs glucocorticoid receptor-mediated negative feedback in rats. Brain Research, 1167, 101–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2007.05.080
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mantsch, J. R., & Goeders, N. E. (2000). Effects of cocaine self-administration on plasma corticosterone in rats: Relationship to hippocampal type II glucocorticoid receptors. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 24(4), 633–646. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-5846(00)00098-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mantsch, J. R., & Katz, E. S. (2007). Elevation of glucocorticoids is necessary but not sufficient for the escalation of cocaine self-administration by chronic electric footshock stress in rats. Neuropsychopharmacology : Official Publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 32(2), 367–376. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.1301077
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mantsch, J. R., Saphier, D., & Goeders, N. E. (1998). Corticosterone facilitates the acquisition of cocaine self-administration in rats: Opposite effects of the type II glucocorticoid receptor agonist dexamethasone. The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 287(1), 72–80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mantsch, J. R., Yuferov, V., Mathieu-Kia, A. M., Ho, A., & Kreek, M. J. (2003). Neuroendocrine alterations in a high-dose, extended-access rat self-administration model of escalating cocaine use. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 28(7), 836–862. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0306-4530(02)00088-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matić, G., Milutinović, D. V., Nestorov, J., Elaković, I., Jovanović, S. M., Perišić, T., Dunđerski, J., Damjanović, S., Knežević, G., Špirić, Ž., Vermetten, E., & Savić, D. (2013). Lymphocyte glucocorticoid receptor expression level and hormone-binding properties differ between war trauma-exposed men with and without PTSD. Progress in neuro-psychopharmacology & biological psychiatry, 43, 238–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2013.01.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McFarlane, A. C., Atchison, M., & Yehuda, R. (1997). The acute stress response following motor vehicle accidents and its relation to PTSD. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 821, 437–441. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1997.tb48299.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McFarlane, A. C., Barton, C. A., Yehuda, R., & Wittert, G. (2011). Cortisol response to acute trauma and risk of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 36(5), 720–727. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.10.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meewisse, M. L., Reitsma, J. B., de Vries, G. J., Gersons, B. P., & Olff, M. (2007). Cortisol and post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis. The British Journal of Psychiatry : The Journal of Mental Science, 191, 387–392. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.106.024877
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mills, K. L., Teesson, M., Ross, J., & Peters, L. (2006). Trauma, PTSD, and substance use disorders: Findings from the Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Well-Being. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 163(4), 652–658. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.163.4.652
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris, M. C., Compas, B. E., & Garber, J. (2012). Relations among posttraumatic stress disorder, comorbid major depression, and HPA function: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 32(4), 301–315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2012.02.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mylle, J., & Maes, M. (2004). Partial posttraumatic stress disorder revisited. Journal of Affective Disorders, 78(1), 37–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-0327(02)00218-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Najavits, L. M., Gastfriend, D. R., Barber, J. P., Reif, S., Muenz, L. R., Blaine, J., Frank, A., Crits-Christoph, P., Thase M., & Weiss, R. D. (1998). Cocaine dependence  with and without PTSD among subjects in the National Institute on Drug Abuse Collaborative Cocaine Treatment Study. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 155(2), 214–219.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Najavits, L. M., Harned, M. S., Gallop, R. J., Butler, S. F., Barber, J. P., Thase, M. E., & Crits-Christoph, P. (2007). Six-month treatment outcomes of cocaine-dependent patients with and without PTSD in a multisite national trial. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 68(3), 353–361. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2007.68.353
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norris, F. H. (1992). Epidemiology of trauma: Frequency and impact of different potentially traumatic events on different demographic groups. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60(3), 409–418. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.60.3.409
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pan, X., Kaminga, A. C., Wen, S. W., Wang, Z., Wu, X., & Liu, A. (2020). The 24-hour urinary cortisol in post-traumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis. PLoS One, 15(1), e0227560. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227560
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pan, X., Wang, Z., Wu, X., Wen, S. W., & Liu, A. (2018). Salivary cortisol in post-traumatic stress disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry, 18(1), 324. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-018-1910-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pfeffer, C. R., Altemus, M., Heo, M., & Jiang, H. (2009). Salivary cortisol and psychopathology in adults bereaved by the September 11, 2001 terror attacks. Int J Psychiatry Med, 39(3), 215–226. https://doi.org/10.2190/PM.39.3.a
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piazza, P. V., Marinelli, M., Jodogne, C., Deroche, V., Rougé-Pont, F., Maccari, S., Le Moal, M., & Simon, H. (1994). Inhibition of corticosterone synthesis by Metyrapone decreases cocaine-induced locomotion and relapse of cocaine self-administration. Brain Research, 658(1-2), 259–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-8993(09)90034-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Proctor, S. L., & Hoffmann, N. G. (2012). Identifying patterns of co-occurring substance use disorders and mental illness in a jail population. Addiction Research & Theory, 20(6), 492–503. https://doi.org/10.3109/16066359.2012.667853
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reed, P. L., Anthony, J. C., & Breslau, N. (2007). Incidence of drug problems in young adults exposed to trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: Do early life experiences and predispositions matter? Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(12), 1435–1442. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.64.12.1435
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reul, J. M., & de Kloet, E. R. (1985). Two receptor systems for corticosterone in rat brain: Microdistribution and differential occupation. Endocrinology, 117(6), 2505–2511. https://doi.org/10.1210/endo-117-6-2505
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saxon, A. J., Davis, T. M., Sloan, K. L., McKnight, K. M., McFall, M. E., & Kivlahan, D. R. (2001). Trauma, symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder, and associated problems among incarcerated veterans. Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.), 52(7), 959–964. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.52.7.959
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schelling, G., Briegel, J., Roozendaal, B., Stoll, C., Rothenhausler, H. B., & Kapfhammer, H. P. (2001). The effect of stress doses of hydrocortisone during septic shock on posttraumatic stress disorder in survivors. Biological Psychiatry, 50(12), 978–985. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(01)01270-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schelling, G., Kilger, E., Roozendaal, B., de Quervain, D. J.-F., Briegel, J., Dagge, A., Rothenhäusler, H.-B., Krauseneck, T., Nollert, G., & Kapfhammer, H.-P. (2004). Stress doses of hydrocortisone, traumatic memories, and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder in patients after cardiac surgery: A randomized study. Biological Psychiatry, 55(6), 627–633. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2003.09.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schelling, G., Stoll, C., Kapfhammer, H. P., Rothenhäusler, H. B., Krauseneck, T., Durst, K., Haller, M., & Briegel, J. (1999). The effect of stress doses of hydrocortisone during septic shock on posttraumatic stress disorder and health-related quality of life in survivors. Critical Care Medicine, 27(12), 2678–2683. https://doi.org/10.1097/00003246-199912000-00012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scherrer, J. F., Xian, H., Lyons, M. J., Goldberg, J., Eisen, S. A., True, W. R., Tsuang, M., Bucholz, K. K., & Koenen, K. C. (2008). Posttraumatic stress disorder; combat exposure; and nicotine dependence, alcohol dependence, and major depression in male twins. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 49(3), 297–304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2007.11.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwendt, M., Shallcross, J., Hadad, N. A., Namba, M., Hiller, H., Wu, L., Krause, E. G., & Knackstedt, L. A. (2018). A novel rat model of comorbid PTSD and addiction reveals intersections between stress susceptibility and enhanced cocaine seeking with a role for mGlu5 receptors . Translational Psychiatry, 8(1), 209https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-018-0265-9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shallcross, J., Hámor, P., Bechard, A. R., Romano, M., Knackstedt, L., & Schwendt, M. (2019). The Divergent Effects of CDPPB and Cannabidiol on Fear Extinction and Anxiety in a Predator Scent Stress Model of PTSD in Rats. Frontiers Behavioral Neuroscience, 13, 91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sinha, R., Catapano, D., & O'Malley, S. (1999). Stress-induced craving and stress response in cocaine dependent individuals. Psychopharmacology, 142(4), 343–351. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002130050898
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sinha, R., Garcia, M., Paliwal, P., Kreek, M. J., & Rounsaville, B. J. (2006). Stress-induced cocaine craving and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal responses are predictive of cocaine relapse outcomes. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63(3), 324–331. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.63.3.324
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sinha, R., Talih, M., Malison, R., Cooney, N., Anderson, G. M., & Kreek, M. J. (2003). Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and sympatho-adreno-medullary responses during stress-induced and drug cue-induced cocaine craving states. Psychopharmacology, 170(1), 62–72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-003-1525-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solomon, S. D., & Davidson, J. R. (1997). Trauma: Prevalence, impairment, service use, and cost. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 58 (Suppl 9), 5–11.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stewart, S. H., & Conrod, P. J. (2008). Anxiety disorder and substance use disorder co-morbidity: common themes and future directions. In S. H. Stewart & P. J. Conrod (eds.), Anxiety and substance use disorders (pp. 239–257). Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Sullivan, G. M., Apergis, J., Bush, D. E. A., Johnson, L. R., Hou, M., & Ledoux, J. E. (2004). Lesions in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis disrupt corticosterone and freezing responses elicited by a contextual but not by a specific cue-conditioned fear stimulus. Neuroscience, 128(1), 7–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2004.06.015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suris, A., North, C., Adinoff, B., Powell, C. M., & Greene, R. (2010). Effects of exogenous glucocorticoid on combat-related PTSD symptoms. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry : Official Journal of the American Academy of Clinical Psychiatrists, 22(4), 274–279.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Zuiden, M., Geuze, E., Willemen, H. L., Vermetten, E., Maas, M., Heijnen, C. J., & Kavelaars, A. (2011). Pre-existing high glucocorticoid receptor number predicting development of posttraumatic stress symptoms after military deployment. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 168(1), 89–96. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10050706
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vescovi, P. P., Coiro, V., Volpi, R., & Passeri, M. (1992). Diurnal variations in plasma ACTH, cortisol and beta-endorphin levels in cocaine addicts. Hormone Research, 37(6), 221–224. https://doi.org/10.1159/000182316
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vranjkovic, O., Van Newenhizen, E. C., Nordness, M. E., Blacktop, J. M., Urbanik, L. A., Mathy, J. C., McReynolds, J. R., Miller, A. M., Doncheck, E. M., Kloehn, T. M., Stinnett, G. S., Gerndt, C. H., Ketchesin, K. D., Baker, D. A., Seasholtz, A. F., & Mantsch, J. R. (2018). Enhanced CRFR1-dependent regulation of a ventral tegmental area to prelimbic cortex projection establishes susceptibility to stress-induced cocaine seeking. The Journal of Neuroscience : The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 38(50), 10657–10671. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2080-18.2018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vujanovic, A. A., Bonn-Miller, M. O., & Petry, N. M. (2016). Co-occurring posttraumatic stress and substance use: Emerging research on correlates, mechanisms, and treatments-Introduction to the special issue. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors : Journal of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors, 30 (7), 713–771. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000222
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wahbeh, H., & Oken, B. S. (2013). Salivary cortisol lower in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26(2), 241–248. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21798
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walsh, K., Nugent, N. R., Kotte, A., Amstadter, A. B., Wang, S., Guille, C., Acierno, R., Kilpatrick, D. G., & Resnick, H. S. (2013). Cortisol at the emergency room rape visit as a predictor of PTSD and depression symptoms over time. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 38(11), 2520–2528. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.05.017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitaker, A. M., Gilpin, N. W., & Edwards, S. (2014). Animal models of post-traumatic stress disorder and recent neurobiological insights. Behavioural Pharmacology, 25(5-6), 398–409. https://doi.org/10.1097/fbp.0000000000000069
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xian, H., Chantarujikapong, S. I., Scherrer, J. F., Eisen, S. A., Lyons, M. J., Goldberg, J., Tsuang, M., & True, W. R. (2000). Genetic and environmental influences on posttraumatic stress disorder, alcohol and drug dependence in twin pairs. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 61(1), 95–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0376-8716(00)00127-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yehuda, R., & Antelman, S. M. (1993). Criteria for rationally evaluating animal models of posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 33(7), 479–486. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3223(93)90001-T
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yehuda, R., Boisoneau, D., Lowy, M. T., & Giller, E. L. Jr.(1995). Dose-response changes in plasma cortisol and lymphocyte glucocorticoid receptors following dexamethasone administration in combat veterans with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52(7), 583–593. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1995.03950190065010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yehuda, R., Lowy, M. T., Southwick, S. M., Shaffer, D., & Giller, E. L. Jr.(1991). Lymphocyte glucocorticoid receptor number in posttraumatic stress disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 148(4), 499–504. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.148.4.499
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yehuda, R., Southwick, S. M., Krystal, J. H., Bremner, D., Charney, D. S., & Mason, J. W. (1993). Enhanced suppression of cortisol following dexamethasone administration in posttraumatic stress disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 150(1), 83–86. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.150.1.83
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zohar, J., Yahalom, H., Kozlovsky, N., Cwikel-Hamzany, S., Matar, M. A., Kaplan, Z., Yehuda, R., & Cohen, H. (2011). High dose hydrocortisone immediately after trauma may alter the trajectory of PTSD: Interplay between clinical and animal studies. European Neuropsychopharmacology : The Journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 21(11), 796–809. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2011.06.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar