References
- Wong C, Crawford DA. Lipid signalling in the pathology of autism spectrum disorders BT – comprehensive guide to autism. In: Patel VB, Preedy VR, Martin CR, New York, NY: Springer New York; 2014. p. 1259–83. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-4788-7_68.
- Bazinet RP, Layé S. Polyunsaturated fatty acids and their metabolites in brain function and disease. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2014;15(12):771–85. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3820.
- Wainwright PE. Dietary essential fatty acids and brain function: a developmental perspective on mechanisms. Proc Nutr Soc. 2002;61(1):61–9. doi:https://doi.org/10.1079/PNS2001130.
- Janssen CIF, Kiliaan AJ. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) from genesis to senescence: The influence of LCPUFA on neural development, aging, and neurodegeneration. Prog Lipid Res. 2014;53(1):1–17. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plipres.2013.10.002.
- Bos DJ, van Montfort SJT, Oranje B, Durston S, Smeets PAM. Effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on human brain morphology and function: what is the evidence? Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2016;26(3):546–61. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2015.12.031.
- Darios F, Davletov B. Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids stimulate cell membrane expansion by acting on syntaxin 3. Nature. 2006;440(7085):813–7. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/nature04598.
- Wurtman RJ, Ulus IH, Cansev M, Watkins CJ, Wang L, Marzloff G. Synaptic proteins and phospholipids are increased in gerbil brain by administering uridine plus docosahexaenoic acid orally. Brain Res. 2006;1088(1):83–92. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2006.03.019.
- Wurtman RJ. Synapse formation and cognitive brain development: effect of docosahexaenoic acid and other dietary constituents. Metabolism. 2008;57(SUPL.2):S6–S10. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.metabol.2008.07.007.
- Cao D, Kevala K, Kim J, Moon H-S, Jun SB, Lovinger D, et al. Docosahexaenoic acid promotes hippocampal neuronal development and synaptic function. J Neurochem. 2009;111(2):510–21. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-4159.2009.06335.x.
- Fedorova I, Salem N. Omega-3 fatty acids and rodent behavior. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fat Acids. 2006;75(4–5):271–89. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plefa.2006.07.006.
- Boucher O, Burden MJ, Muckle G, Saint-Amour D, Ayotte P, Dewailly E, et al. Neurophysiologic and neurobehavioral evidence of beneficial effects of prenatal omega-3 fatty acid intake on memory function at school age 1–3. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;93:1025–37. doi:https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.110.000323.Am.
- Andruchow ND, Konishi K, Shatenstein B, Bohbot VD. A lower ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids predicts better hippocampus-dependent spatial memory and cognitive status in older adults. Neuropsychology. 2017;31(7):724–34. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000373.
- Bazan NG. Lipid signaling in neural plasticity, brain repair, and neuroprotection. Mol Neurobiol. 2005;32(1):89–104. doi:MN:32:1:089 [pii]rhttps://doi.org/10.1385/MN:32:1:089[doi].
- Kawashima A, Harada T, Kami H, Yano T, Imada K, Mizuguchi K. Effects of eicosapentaenoic acid on synaptic plasticity, fatty acid profile and phosphoinositide 3-kinase signaling in rat hippocampus and differentiated PC12 cells. J Nutr Biochem. 2010;21(4):268–77. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2008.12.015.
- Bhatia HS, Agrawal R, Sharma S, Huo YX, Ying Z, Gomez-Pinilla F. Omega-3 fatty acid deficiency during brain maturation reduces neuronal and behavioral plasticity in adulthood. PLoS One. 2011;6(12):e28451. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0028451.
- Bent S, Bertoglio K, Hendren RL. Omega-3 fatty acids for autistic spectrum disorder: A systematic review. J Autism Dev Disord. 2009;39(8):1145–54. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-009-0724-5.
- Mazahery H, Stonehouse W, Delshad M, Kruger M, Conlon C, Beck K, et al. Relationship between long chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and autism spectrum disorder: Systematic review and meta-analysis of case-control and randomised controlled trials. Nutrients. 2017;9(2):1–32. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9020155.
- Tvrzicka E, Kremmyda LS, Stankova B, Zak A. Fatty acids as biocompounds: their role in human metabolism, health and disease – a review. part 1: classification, dietary sources and biological functions. Biomed Pap. 2011;155(2):117–30. doi:https://doi.org/10.5507/bp.2011.038.
- Liu JJ, Green P, John Mann J, Rapoport SI, Sublette ME. Pathways of polyunsaturated fatty acid utilization: Implications for brain function in neuropsychiatric health and disease. Brain Res. 2015;1597:220–46. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2014.11.059.
- Mostofsky DI, Yehuda S. Handbook of essential fatty acid biology: biochemistry, physiology, and behavioral neurobiology. New York: Springer Science & Business Media; 1997.
- Pelley JW. Elsevier’s integrated review biochemistry; 2012. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-07446-9.00009-X.
- National Institutes of Health. Omega-3 fatty acids. Fact sheet for health professionals.
- Spector AA. Plasma free fatty acid and lipoproteins as sources of polyunsaturated fatty acid for the brain. J Mol Neurosci. 2001;16(2–3):159–66. doi:https://doi.org/10.1385/JMN:16:2-3:159.
- Chen CT, Green JT, Orr SK, Bazinet RP. Regulation of brain polyunsaturated fatty acid uptake and turnover. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fat Acids. 2008;79(3–5):85–91. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plefa.2008.09.003.
- Ramirez M, Amate L, Gil A. Absorption and distribution of dietary fatty acids from different sources. Early Hum Dev. 2001;65:S95–S101. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-3782(01)00211-0.
- Mitchell RW, Hatch GM. Fatty acid transport into the brain: Of fatty acid fables and lipid tails. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fat Acids. 2011;85(5):293–302. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plefa.2011.04.007.
- Qi K, Hall M, Deckelbaum R. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid accretion in brain. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2002;5:133–8. http://journals.lww.com/co-clinicalnutrition/Abstract/2002/03000/Long_chain_polyunsaturated_fatty_acid_accretion_in.3.aspx.
- Black PN, Sandoval A, Arias-Barrau E, DiRusso CC. Targeting the fatty acid transport proteins (FATP) to understand the mechanisms linking fatty acid transport to metabolism. Immunol Endocr Metab Agents Med Chem (Formerly Curr Med Chem Endocr Metab Agents). 2009;9(1):11–7.
- Jump DB. The biochemistry of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. J Biol Chem. 2002;277(11):8755–8. doi:https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.R100062200.
- Chmurzyńska A. The multigene family of fatty acid-binding proteins (FABPs): function, structure and polymorphism. J Appl Genet. 2006;47(1):39–48. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03194597.
- Innis SM. Fatty acids and early human development. Early Hum Dev. 2007;83(12):761–6. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2007.09.004.
- Schwenk RW, Holloway GP, Luiken JJFP, Bonen A, Glatz JFC. Fatty acid transport across the cell membrane: regulation by fatty acid transporters. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fat Acids. 2010;82(4-6):149–54. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plefa.2010.02.029.
- Chabowski A, Górski J, Luiken JJFP, Glatz JFC, Bonen A. Evidence for concerted action of FAT/CD36 and FABPpm to increase fatty acid transport across the plasma membrane. Prostaglandins, Leukot Essent Fat Acids. 2007;77(5–6):345–53.
- Stahl A, Evans JG, Pattel S, Hirsch D, Lodish HF. Insulin causes fatty acid transport protein translocation and enhanced fatty acid uptake in adipocytes. Dev Cell. 2002;2(4):477–88.
- Khan SA, Vanden Heuvel JP. Reviews: current topicsrole of nuclear receptors in the regulation of gene expression by dietary fatty acids (review). J Nutr Biochem. 2003;14(10):554–67. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0955-2863(03)00098-6.
- Brown AJ, Jupe S, Briscoe CP. A family of fatty acid binding receptors. DNA Cell Biol. 2005;24(1):54–61. doi:https://doi.org/10.1089/dna.2005.24.54.
- Willson TM, Brown PJ, Sternbach DD, Henke BR. The PPARs: from orphan receptors to drug discovery. J Med Chem. 2000;43(4):527–50.
- Heneka MT, Landreth GE. PPARs in the brain. Biochim Biophys Acta – Mol Cell Biol Lipids. 2007;1771(8):1031–45. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbalip.2007.04.016.
- Khan MZ, He L. The role of polyunsaturated fatty acids and GPR40 receptor in brain. Neuropharmacology. 2017;113(24):639–51. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2015.05.013.
- Chen XR, Besson VC, Palmier B, Garcia Y, Plotkine M, Marchand-Leroux C. Neurological recovery-promoting, anti-inflammatory, and anti-oxidative effects afforded by fenofibrate, a PPAR alpha agonist, in traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma. 2007;24(7):1119–31. doi:https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2006.0216.
- Woods JW, Tanen M, Figueroa DJ, Biswas C, Zycband E, Moller DE, et al. Localization of PPARδ in murine central nervous system: expression in oligodendrocytes and neurons. Brain Res. 2003;975(1–2):10–21. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-8993(03)02515-0.
- Hall MG, Quignodon L, Desvergne B. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor β/δ in the brain: Facts and hypothesis. PPAR Res. 2008;2008. doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2008/780452
- Quintanilla RA, Utreras E, Cabezas-Opazo FA. Role of PPARγ in the differentiation and function of neurons. PPAR Res. 2014;2014:1–9.
- Quintanilla RA, Godoy JA, Alfaro I, Cabezas D, von Bernhardi R, Bronfman M, et al. Thiazolidinediones promote axonal growth through the activation of the JNK pathway. PLoS One. 2013;8(5):e65140.
- Miglio G, Rattazzi L, Rosa AC, Fantozzi R. PPARγ stimulation promotes neurite outgrowth in SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells. Neurosci Lett. 2009;454(2):134–8.
- Kariharan T, Nanayakkara G, Parameshwaran K, Bagasrawala I, Ahuja M, Abdel-Rahman E, et al. Central activation of PPAR-gamma ameliorates diabetes induced cognitive dysfunction and improves BDNF expression. Neurobiol Aging. 2015;36(3):1451–61.
- Karvat G, Kimchi T. Acetylcholine elevation relieves cognitive rigidity and social deficiency in a mouse model of autism. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2014;39(4):831–40.
- Zeidán-Chuliá F, de Oliveira B-HN, Casanova MF, Casanova EL, Noda M, Salmina AB, et al. Up-regulation of oligodendrocyte lineage markers in the cerebellum of autistic patients: evidence from network analysis of gene expression. Mol Neurobiol. 2016;53(6):4019–25.
- Lee H, Thacker S, Sarn N, Dutta R, Eng C. Constitutional mislocalization of Pten drives precocious maturation in oligodendrocytes and aberrant myelination in model of autism spectrum disorder. Transl Psychiatry. 2019;9(1):1–12.
- Khanbabaei M, Hughes E, Ellegood J, Qiu LR, Yip R, Dobry J, et al. Precocious myelination in a mouse model of autism. Transl Psychiatry. 2019;9(1):1–14.
- Armeanu R, Mokkonen M, Crespi B. Meta-analysis of BDNF levels in autism. Cell Mol Neurobiol. 2017;37(5):949–54.
- Robertson CE, Ratai E-M, Kanwisher N. Reduced GABAergic action in the autistic brain. Curr Biol. 2016;26(1):80–5.
- Heise C, Preuss JM, Schroeder JC, Battaglia CR, Kolibius J, Schmid R, et al. Heterogeneity of cell surface glutamate and GABA receptor expression in Shank and CNTN4 autism mouse models. Front Mol Neurosci. 2018;11:212.
- Mirza R, Sharma B. Selective modulator of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α protects propionic acid induced autism-like phenotypes in rats. Life Sci. 2018;214:106–17.
- Boris M, Kaiser CC, Goldblatt A, Elice MW, Edelson SM, Adams JB, et al. Effect of pioglitazone treatment on behavioral symptoms in autistic children. J Neuroinflammation. 2007;4(1):3.
- Kirsten TB, Casarin RC, Bernardi MM, Felicio LF. Pioglitazone abolishes cognition impairments as well as BDNF and neurotensin disturbances in a rat model of autism. Biol Open. 2019;8(5):bio041327.
- Ma D, Zhang M, Larsen CP, Xu F, Hua W, Yamashima T, et al. DHA promotes the neuronal differentiation of rat neural stem cells transfected with GPR40 gene. Brain Res. 2010;1330:1–8.
- Miyamoto J, Hasegawa S, Kasubuchi M, Ichimura A, Nakajima A, Kimura I. Nutritional signaling via free fatty acid receptors. Int J Mol Sci. 2016;17(4):450.
- Aizawa F, Nishinaka T, Yamashita T, Nakamoto K, Kurihara T, Hirasawa A, et al. GPR40/FFAR1 deficient mice increase noradrenaline levels in the brain and exhibit abnormal behavior. J Pharmacol Sci. 2016;132(4):249–54.
- Aizawa F, Ogaki Y, Kyoya N, Nishinaka T, Nakamoto K, Kurihara T, et al. The deletion of GPR40/FFAR1 signaling damages maternal care and emotional function in female mice. Biol Pharm Bull. 2017;40(8):1255–9.
- Oh DY, Walenta E. Omega-3 fatty acids and FFAR4. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2014;5:115.
- Katsuma S, Hatae N, Yano T, Ruike Y, Kimura M, Hirasawa A, et al. Free fatty acids inhibit serum deprivation-induced apoptosis through GPR120 in a murine enteroendocrine cell line STC-1. J Biol Chem. 2005;280(20):19507–15.
- Olefsky JM. Omega 3 fatty acids and GPR120. Cell Metab. 2012;15(5):564–5.
- Auguste S, Fisette A, Fernandes MF, Hryhorczuk C, Poitout V, Alquier T, et al. Central agonism of GPR120 acutely inhibits food intake and food reward and chronically suppresses anxiety-like behavior in mice. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2016;19(7):pyw014.
- Hudson BD, Shimpukade B, Milligan G, Ulven T. The molecular basis of ligand interaction at free fatty acid receptor 4 (FFA4/GPR120). J Biol Chem. 2014;289(29):20345–58.
- Haag M. Essential fatty acids and the brain. Can J Psychiatry. 2003;48(3):195–203. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=12728744.
- Yehuda S, Rabinovitz S, Mostofsky DI. Essential fatty acids and the brain: from infancy to aging. Neurobiol Aging. 2005;26(SUPPL):98–102. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2005.09.013.
- Yehuda S, Rabinovitz S, Carasso RL, Mostofsky DI. The role of polyunsaturated fatty acids in restoring the aging neuronal membrane. Neurobiol Aging. 2002;23(5):843–53. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0197-4580(02)00074-X.
- Cocchi M, Minuto C, Tonello L, Tuszynski J. Connection between the linoleic acid and Psychopathology: A Symmetry-Breaking phenomenon in the brain? Open J Depress. 2015;4(November):41–52. doi:https://doi.org/10.4236/ojd.2015.44005.
- Meisenberg G, Simmons WH. Principles of medical biochemistry. Philadelphia: Elsevier Health Sciences; 2017.
- Innis SM. Dietary omega 3 fatty acids and the developing brain. Brain Res. 2008;1237:35–43. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2008.08.078.
- Singh M. Essential fatty acids, DHA and human brain. Indian J Pediatr. 2005;72(3):239–42. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02859265.
- Crawford MA, Williams G, Hassam AG, Whitehouse WL. Essential fatty acids and fetal brain growth. Lancet. 1976;307(7957):452–3.
- Courchesne E, Campbell K, Solso S. Brain growth across the life span in autism: Age-specific changes in anatomical pathology. Brain Res. 2011;1380:138–45. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2010.09.101.
- Al MDM, Van Houwelingen AC, Kester ADM, Hasaart THM, De Jong AEP, Hornstra G. Maternal essential fatty acid patterns during normal pregnancy and their relationship to the neonatal essential fatty acid status. Br J Nutr. 1995;74(1):55–68.
- Hanebutt FL, Demmelmair H, Schiessl B, Larqué E, Koletzko B. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (LC-PUFA) transfer across the placenta. Clin Nutr. 2008;27(5):685–93.
- Koletzko B, Agostoni C, Carlson SE, Clandinin T, Hornstra G, Neuringer M, et al. Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) and perinatal development. Acta Paediatr. 2001;90:460–4. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-2227.2001.tb00452.x.
- Helland IB, Smith L, Saarem K, Saugstad OD, Drevon CA. Maternal supplementation with very-long-chain n-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation augments children’s IQ at 4 years of age. Pediatrics. 2003;111(1):e39–e44.
- Gustafsson PA, Duchén K, Birberg U, Karlsson T. Breastfeeding, very long polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and IQ at 6/4 years of age. Acta Paediatr. 2004;93(10):1280–7.
- Dijck-Brouwer DAJ, Hadders-Algra M, Bouwstra H, Decsi T, Boehm G, Martini IA, et al. Lower fetal status of docosahexaenoic acid, arachidonic acid and essential fatty acids is associated with less favorable neonatal neurological condition. Prostaglandins, Leukot Essent Fat Acids. 2005;72(1):21–8.
- Moriguchi T, Greiner RS, Salem N. Jr. Behavioral deficits associated with dietary induction of decreased brain docosahexaenoic acid concentration. J Neurochem. 2000;75(6):2563–73.
- American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5®). Washington: American Psychiatric Association; 2013.
- World Health Organization. Autism spectrum disorders. Fact sheets. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/autism-spectrum-disorders. Published 2019.
- Baumer BN, Spence SJ. Evaluation and management of the child with autism spectrum disorder. Continuum (Minneap Minn). 2018;24(February):248–75.
- SFARI. Gene. Database. [cited 2012 Sept 20]. Available from: https://gene.sfari.org/. Published 2019.
- Bakos J, Bacova Z, Grant SG, Castejon AM, Ostatnikova D. Are molecules involved in neuritogenesis and axon Guidance related to autism pathogenesis? NeuroMolecular Med. 2015;17(3):297–304. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s12017-015-8357-7.
- Bourgeron T. From the genetic architecture to synaptic plasticity in autism spectrum disorder. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2015;16(9):551–63. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3992.
- Chang J, Gilman SR, Chiang AH, Sanders SJ, Vitkup D. Genotype to phenotype relationships in autism spectrum disorders. Nat Neurosci. 2015;18(2):191–8. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.3907.
- Courchesne E, Pramparo T, Gazestani VH, Lombardo M V, Lewis NE, Pierce K. The ASD Living Biology : from cell proliferation to clinical phenotype. Mol Psychiatry. 2018. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-018-0056-y.
- Urbanska M, Swiech L, Jaworski J. Developmental plasticity of the dendritic compartment: focus on the cytoskeleton. In: M. Kreutz, C. Sala, editors. Synaptic plasticity. Vienna: Springer; 2012. p. 265–84.
- Citri A, Malenka RC. Synaptic plasticity: multiple forms, functions, and mechanisms. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2008;33(1):18–41.
- Emoto K, Wong R, Huang E, Hoogenraad C. Dendrites: development and disease. Tokyo, Japan: Springer; 2016; doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-56050-0.
- Raymond G V, Bauman ML, Kemper TL. Hippocampus in autism: a Golgi analysis. Acta Neuropathol. 1995;91(1):117–9. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s004010050401.
- Mukaetova-Ladinska EB, Arnold H, Jaros E, Perry R, Perry E. Depletion of MAP2 expression and laminar cytoarchitectonic changes in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in adult autistic individuals. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol. 2004. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2990.2004.00574.x
- Barón-Mendoza I, Del Moral-Sánchez I, Martínez-Marcial M, García O, Garzón-Cortés D, González-Arenas A. Dendritic complexity in prefrontal cortex and hippocampus of the autistic-like mice C58/J. Neurosci Lett. 2019;703:149–55.
- Ikemoto A, Kobayashi T, Watanabe S, Okuyama H. Membrane fatty acid modifications of PC12 cells by arachidonate or docosahexaenoate affect neurite outgrowth but not norepinephrine release. Neurochem Res. 1997;22(6):671–8.
- Calderon F, Kim H. Docosahexaenoic acid promotes neurite growth in hippocampal neurons. J Neurochem. 2004;90(4):979–88.
- Robson LG, Dyall S, Sidloff D, Michael-Titus AT. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids increase the neurite outgrowth of rat sensory neurones throughout development and in aged animals. Neurobiol Aging. 2010;31(4):678–87. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2008.05.027.
- Sakamoto T, Cansev M, Wurtman RJ. Oral supplementation with docosahexaenoic acid and uridine-5′-monophosphate increases dendritic spine density in adult gerbil hippocampus. Brain Res. 2007;1182(1):50–9. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2007.08.089.
- Hutsler JJ, Zhang H. Increased dendritic spine densities on cortical projection neurons in autism spectrum disorders. Brain Res. 2010;1309:83–94. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2009.09.120.
- Hutsler JJ, Avino T. Recent Advances on the Modular Organization of the Cortex. New York: Springer; 2015.
- Weir RK, Bauman MD, Jacobs B. Protracted dendritic growth in the typically developing human amygdala and increased spine density in young ASD brains. 2017. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.
- Fassio A, Patry L, Congia S, Onofri F, Piton A, Gauthier J, et al. SYN1 loss-of-function mutations in autism and partial epilepsy cause impaired synaptic function. Hum Mol Genet. 2011;20(12):2297–307.
- Carlson GC. Glutamate receptor dysfunction and drug targets across models of autism spectrum disorders. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2012;100(4):850–4.
- Tsai N-P, Wilkerson JR, Guo W, Maksimova MA, DeMartino GN, Cowan CW, et al. Multiple autism-linked genes mediate synapse elimination via proteasomal degradation of a synaptic scaffold PSD-95. Cell. 2012;151(7):1581–94.
- Gilbert J, Man H-Y. Fundamental elements in autism: from neurogenesis and neurite growth to synaptic plasticity. Front Cell Neurosci. 2017;11(November):1–25. doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2017.00359.
- Feinmark SJ, Begum R, Tsvetkov E, Goussakov I, Funk CD, Siegelbaum SA, et al. 12-lipoxygenase metabolites of arachidonic acid mediate metabotropic glutamate receptor-dependent long-term depression at hippocampal CA3-CA1 synapses. J Neurosci. 2003;23(36):11427–35. 23/36/11427 [pii].
- Kotani S, Nakazawa H, Tokimasa T, Akimoto K, Kawashima H, Toyoda-Ono Y, et al. Synaptic plasticity preserved with arachidonic acid diet in aged rats. Neurosci Res. 2003;46(4):453–61. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-0102(03)00123-8.
- Luo L. Actin cytoskeleton regulation in neuronal Morphogenesis and structural plasticity. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol. 2002;18(1):601–35. doi:https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.18.031802.150501.
- Luo L. Rho gtpases in neuronal morphogenesis. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2000;1:3–10.
- Dehmelt L, Halpain S. Actin and microtubules in neurite initiation: are MAPs the missing link? J Neurobiol. 2004;58(1):18–33. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/neu.10284.
- Griesi-Oliveira K, Suzuki AM, Alves AY, Mafra ACCN, Yamamoto GL, Ezquina S, et al. Actin cytoskeleton dynamics in stem cells from autistic individuals. Sci Rep. 2018;8(1):1–10. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-29309-6.
- Kadak MT, Cetin I, Tarakçıoğlu MC, Özer ÖF, Kaçar S, Çimen B. Low serum level α-synuclein and tau protein in autism spectrum disorder compared to controls. Neuropediatrics. 2015;46(6):410–5.
- Duffney LJ, Zhong P, Wei J, Matas E, Cheng J, Qin L, et al. Autism-like deficits in Shank3-deficient mice are rescued by targeting actin regulators. Cell Rep. 2015;11(9):1400–13.
- Barón-Mendoza I, García O, Calvo-Ochoa E, Rebollar-García JO, Garzón-Cortés D, Haro R, et al. Alterations in neuronal cytoskeletal and astrocytic proteins content in the brain of the autistic-like mouse strain C58/J. Neurosci Lett. 2018;682(April):32–8. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2018.06.004.
- Reichova A, Zatkova M, Bacova Z, Bakos J. Abnormalities in interactions of Rho GTPases with scaffolding proteins contribute to neurodevelopmental disorders. J Neurosci Res. 2018;96(5):781–8.
- Van Aelst L, Cline HT. Rho GTPases and activity-dependent dendrite development. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2004;14(3):297–304. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2004.05.012.
- Katakura M, Hashimoto M, Okui T, Shahdat HM, Matsuzaki K, Shido O. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids enhance neuronal differentiation in cultured rat neural stem cells. Stem Cells Int. 2013;2013:1–9.
- Mita T, Mayanagi T, Ichijo H, Fukumoto K, Otsuka K, Sakai A, et al. Docosahexaenoic acid promotes axon outgrowth by translational regulation of tau and collapsin response mediator protein 2 expression. J Biol Chem. 2016;291(10):4955–65.
- Kim HJ, Yoon HJ, Kim BK, et al. G protein-coupled receptor 120 signaling Negatively regulates osteoclast differentiation, survival, and function. J Cell Physiol. 2016. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/jcp.25133
- Ferdaoussi M, Bergeron V, Zarrouki B, Kolic J, Cantley J, Fielitz J, et al. G protein-coupled receptor (GPR)40-dependent potentiation of insulin secretion in mouse islets is mediated by protein kinase D1. Diabetologia. 2012;55(10):2682–92.
- Seljeset S, Siehler S. Receptor-specific regulation of ERK1/2 activation by members of the “free fatty acid receptor” family. J Recept Signal Transduct. 2012;32(4):196–201. doi:https://doi.org/10.3109/10799893.2012.692118.
- Kim MH, Kim MO, Kim YH, Kim JS, Han HJ. Linoleic acid induces mouse embryonic stem cell proliferation via Ca2+/PKC, PI3K/Akt, and MAPKs. Cell Physiol Biochem. 2009;23(1–3):53–64.
- Li Z, Theus MH, Wei L. Role of ERK 1/2 signaling in neuronal differentiation of cultured embryonic stem cells. Dev Growth Differ. 2006;48(8):513–23.
- Kumar V, Zhang M-X, Swank MW, Kunz J, Wu G-Y. Regulation of dendritic morphogenesis by Ras–PI3K–Akt–mTOR and Ras–MAPK signaling pathways. J Neurosci. 2005;25(49):11288–99.
- Auer M, Hausott B, Klimaschewski L. Rho GTPases as regulators of morphological neuroplasticity. Ann Anatomy-Anatomischer Anzeiger. 2011;193(4):259–66.
- Schmidt S, Willers J, Riecker S, Moller K, Schuchardt JP, Hahn A. Effect of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on the cytoskeleton: an open-label intervention study. Lipids Health Dis. 2015;14(1):1–9. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/o/cochrane/clcentral/articles/938/CN-01074938/frame.html.
- Govek E-E, Newey SE, Van Aelst L. The role of the Rho GTPases in neuronal development. Genes Dev. 2005;19(1):1–49.
- Amano M, Nakayama M, Kaibuchi K. Rho-kinase/ROCK: A key regulator of the cytoskeleton and cell polarity. Cytoskeleton. 2010;67(9):545–54. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/cm.20472.
- Zhou Q, Xiao J, Liu Y. Participation of syntaxin 1A in membrane trafficking involving neurite elongation and membrane expansion. J Neurosci Res. 2000;61(3):321–8. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-4547(20000801)61:3 < 321::AID-JNR10 > 3.0.CO;2-L.
- Ovsepian S V, Dolly JO. Dendritic SNAREs add a new twist to the old neuron theory. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2011;108(48):19113–20. doi:https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1017235108.
- Jahn R, Scheller RH. SNAREs—engines for membrane fusion. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2006;7(9):631–43.
- Stenmark H. Rab GTPases as coordinators of vesicle traffic. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2009;10(8):513–25. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/nrm2728.
- Gerber SH, Rah J, Min S, Liu X, de Wit H, Dulubova I, et al. Conformational Switch of syntaxin-1 Controls synaptic vesicle fusion. Science (80-). 2008;321(September):1507–10. doi:https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1163174.
- Connell E, Darios F, Broersen K, Gatsby N, Peak-Chew SY, Rickman C. Mechanism of arachidonic acid action on syntaxin – Munc18. EMBO Rep. 2007;8(4):414–9. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.embor.7400935.
- Kitajka K, Puskás LG, Zvara A, Hackler L, Barcelo-Coblijn G, Yeo YK, et al. The role of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in brain: modulation of rat brain gene expression by dietary n-3 fatty acids. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2002;99(5):2619–24. doi:https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.042698699.
- Villarroel-Campos D, Bronfman FC, Gonzalez-Billault C. Rab GTPase signaling in neurite outgrowth and axon specification. Cytoskeleton. 2016;73(9):498–507. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/cm.21303.
- Guerini FR, Bolognesi E, Chiappedi M, Manca S, Ghezzo A, Agliardi C, et al. SNAP-25 single nucleotide polymorphisms are associated with hyperactivity in autism spectrum disorders. Pharmacol Res. 2011;64(3):283–8. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2011.03.015.
- Giannandrea M, Bianchi V, Mignogna ML, Sirri A, Carrabino S, D’Elia E, et al. Mutations in the small GTPase gene RAB39B Are responsible for X-linked mental retardation associated with autism, epilepsy, and macrocephaly. Am J Hum Genet. 2010;86(2):185–95. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.01.011.
- Kofuji T, Hayashi Y, Fujiwara T, Sanada M, Tamaru M, Akagawa K. A part of patients with autism spectrum disorder has haploidy of HPC-1/syntaxin1A gene that possibly causes behavioral disturbance as in experimentally gene ablated mice. Neurosci Lett. 2017;644:5–9. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2017.02.052.
- Aïd S, Vancassel S, Poumès-Ballihaut C, Chalon S, Guesnet P, Lavialle M. Effect of a diet-induced n-3 PUFA depletion on cholinergic parameters in the rat hippocampus. J Lipid Res. 2003;44(8):1545–51.
- Varghese S, Shameena B, Lakshmy PS, et al. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) regulate neurotransmitter contents in rat brain. Indian J Biochem Biophys. 2001;38(5):327–30.
- Zimmer L, Delpal S, Guilloteau D, Aıoun J, Durand G, Chalon S. Chronic n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid deficiency alters dopamine vesicle density in the rat frontal cortex. Neurosci Lett. 2000;284(1–2):25–8.
- Schipper P, Kiliaan AJ, Homberg JR. A mixed polyunsaturated fatty acid diet normalizes hippocampal neurogenesis and reduces anxiety in serotonin transporter knockout rats. Behav Pharmacol. 2011;22(4):324–34.
- Perry EK, Lee MLW, Martin-Ruiz CM, Court JA, Volsen SG, Merrit J, et al. Cholinergic activity in autism: abnormalities in the cerebral cortex and basal forebrain. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158(7):1058–66.
- Nakamura K, Sekine Y, Ouchi Y, Tsujii M, Yoshikawa E, Futatsubashi M, et al. Brain serotonin and dopamine transporter bindings in adults with high-functioning autism. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2010;67(1):59–68.
- Lai MC, Lombardo MV, Baron-Cohen S. Autism. Lancet. 2014;383(9920):896–910. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61539-1.
- Kuratko CN, Barrett EC, Nelson EB, Salem N. The relationship of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) with learning and behavior in healthy children: a review. Nutrients. 2013;5(7):2777–810.
- Kirby A, Woodward A, Jackson S, Wang Y, Crawford MA. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study investigating the effects of omega-3 supplementation in children aged 8–10 years from a mainstream school population. Res Dev Disabil. 2010;31(3):718–30.
- Kirby A, Woodward A, Jackson S, Wang Y, Crawford MA. Childrens’ learning and behaviour and the association with cheek cell polyunsaturated fatty acid levels?. Res Dev Disabil. 2010;31(3):731–42.
- Boucher O, Burden MJ, Muckle G, et al. Neurophysiologic and neurobehavioral evidence of beneficial effects of prenatal omega-3 fatty acid intake on memory function at school age. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011. doi:https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.110.000323.
- Dalton A, Wolmarans P, Witthuhn RC, van Stuijvenberg ME, Swanevelder SA, Smuts CM. A randomised control trial in schoolchildren showed improvement in cognitive function after consuming a bread spread, containing fish flour from a marine source. Prostaglandins, Leukot Essent Fat Acids. 2009;80(2–3):143–9.
- Richardson AJ, Burton JR, Sewell RP, Spreckelsen TF, Montgomery P. Docosahexaenoic acid for reading, cognition and behavior in children aged 7–9 years: a randomized, controlled trial (the DOLAB study). PLoS One. 2012;7(9):e43909.
- Lim S-Y, Suzuki H. Effect of dietary docosahexaenoic acid and phosphatidylcholine on maze behavior and fatty acid composition of plasma and brain lipids in mice. Int J Vitam Nutr Res. 2000;70(5):251–9.
- Tanabe Y, Hashimoto M, Sugioka K, Maruyama M, Fujii Y, Hagiwara R, et al. Improvement of spatial cognition with dietary docosahexaenoic acid is associated with an increase in Fos expression in rat CA1 hippocampus. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 2004;31(10):700–3.
- Vancassel S, Blondeau C, Lallemand S, Cador M, Linard A, Lavialle M, et al. Hyperactivity in the rat is associated with spontaneous low level of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the frontal cortex. Behav Brain Res. 2007;180(2):119–26.
- Williams DL, Goldstein G, Carpenter PA, Minshew NJ. Verbal and spatial working memory in autism. J Autism Dev Disord. 2005;35(6):747–56.
- Mannion A, Leader G. Comorbidity in autism spectrum disorder: A literature review. Res Autism Spectr Disord. 2013;7(12):1595–616.
- Montgomery P, Burton JR, Sewell RP, Spreckelsen TF, Richardson AJ. Fatty acids and sleep in UK children: subjective and pilot objective sleep results from the DOLAB study–a randomized controlled trial. J Sleep Res. 2014;23(4):364–88.
- Jansen EC, Conroy DA, Burgess HJ, et al. Plasma DHA Is related to sleep Timing and Duration in a Cohort of Mexican adolescents. J Nutr. 2019;150:592–598
- Decoeur F, Benmamar-Badel A, Leyrolle Q, Persillet M, Layé S, Nadjar A. Dietary N-3 PUFA deficiency affects sleep-wake activity in basal condition and in response to an inflammatory challenge in mice. Brain Behav Immun. 2019;85:162–169
- Cohen S, Conduit R, Lockley SW, Rajaratnam SMW, Cornish KM. The relationship between sleep and behavior in autism spectrum disorder (ASD): a review. J Neurodev Disord. 2014;6(1):44.
- Joyce C, Honey E, Leekam SR, Barrett SL, Rodgers J. Anxiety, intolerance of uncertainty and restricted and repetitive behaviour: Insights directly from young people with ASD. J Autism Dev Disord. 2017;47(12):3789–802.
- Yehuda S, Rabinovitz S, Mostofsky DI. Mixture of essential fatty acids lowers test anxiety. Nutr Neurosci. 2005;8(4):265–7.
- Gustafson KM, Liao K, Mathis NB, Shaddy DJ, Kerling EH, Christifano DN, et al. Prenatal docosahexaenoic acid supplementation has long-term effects on childhood behavioral and brain responses during performance on an inhibitory task: prenatal DHA and childhood inhibitory performance. Nutr Neurosci. 2020;20:1–11
- Long S, Benton D. A double-blind trial of the effect of docosahexaenoic acid and vitamin and mineral supplementation on aggression, impulsivity, and stress. Hum Psychopharmacol Clin Exp. 2013;28(3):238–47.
- Weiser MJ, Mucha B, Denheyer H, Atkinson D, Schanz N, Vassiliou E, et al. Dietary docosahexaenoic acid alleviates autistic-like behaviors resulting from maternal immune activation in mice. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fat Acids. 2016;106:27–37. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plefa.2015.10.005.
- Jones KL, Will MJ, Hecht PM, Parker CL, Beversdorf DQ. Maternal diet rich in omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids during gestation and lactation produces autistic-like sociability deficits in adult offspring. Behav Brain Res. 2013;238(1):193–9. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2012.10.028.
- Vancassel S, Durand G, Barthélémy C, Lejeune B, Martineau J, Guilloteau D, et al. Plasma fatty acid levels in autistic children. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fat Acids. 2001;65(1):1–7. doi:https://doi.org/10.1054/plef.2001.0281.
- Brigandi SA, Shao H, Qian SY, Shen Y, Wu BL, Kang JX. Autistic children exhibit decreased levels of essential fatty acids in red blood cells. Int J Mol Sci. 2015;16(5):10061–76. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms160510061.
- Tamiji J, Crawford DA. The neurobiology of lipid metabolism in autism spectrum disorders. NeuroSignals. 2010;18(2):98–112. doi:https://doi.org/10.1159/000323189.
- Bell JG, MacKinlay EE, Dick JR, MacDonald DJ, Boyle RM, Glen ACA. Essential fatty acids and phospholipase A2 in autistic spectrum disorders. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fat Acids. 2004;71(4):201–4. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plefa.2004.03.008.
- El-Ansary AK, Ben BA, Al-Ayadhi LY. Impaired plasma phospholipids and relative amounts of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids in autistic patients from Saudi Arabia. Lipids Health Dis. 2011;10(1):63.
- Maekawa M, Iwayama Y, Arai R, Nakamura K, Ohnishi T, Toyota T, et al. Polymorphism screening of brain-expressed FABP7, 5 and 3 genes and association studies in autism and schizophrenia in Japanese subjects. J Hum Genet. 2010;55(2):127–30. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/jhg.2009.133.
- Tseng P-T, Chen Y-W, Stubbs B, Carvalho AF, Whiteley P, Tang C-H, et al. Maternal breastfeeding and autism spectrum disorder in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutr Neurosci. 2019;22(5):354–62.
- Amminger GP, Berger GE, Schäfer MR, Klier C, Friedrich MH, Feucht M. Omega-3 fatty acids supplementation in children with autism: A double-blind randomized, placebo-controlled Pilot study. Biol Psychiatry. 2007. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.05.007
- Meguid NA, Atta HM, Gouda AS, Khalil RO. Role of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the management of Egyptian children with autism. Clin Biochem. 2008. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2008.05.013.
- Meiri G, Bichovsky Y, Belmaker RH. Omega 3 fatty acid treatment in autism. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2009;19(4):449–51. doi:https://doi.org/10.1089/cap.2008.0123.
- Bent S, Bertoglio K, Ashwood P, Bostrom A, Hendren RL. A pilot randomized controlled trial of omega-3 fatty acids for autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord. 2011;41(5):545–54. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-1078-8.
- Yui K, Koshiba M, Nakamura S, Kobayashi Y. Effects of large doses of arachidonic acid added to docosahexaenoic acid on social impairment in individuals with autism spectrum disorders: A double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2012;32(2):200–6. doi:https://doi.org/10.1097/JCP.0b013e3182485791.
- Voigt RG, Mellon MW, Katusic SK, et al. Dietary docosahexaenoic acid supplementation in children with autism. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2014;58(6):715–22. doi:https://doi.org/10.1097/MPG.0000000000000260.
- Ooi YP, Weng SJ, Jang LY, Low L, Seah J, Teo S, et al. Omega-3 fatty acids in the management of autism spectrum disorders: findings from an open-label pilot study in Singapore. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2015;69(8):969–71. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2015.28.
- Parellada M, Llorente C, Calvo R, et al. Randomized trial of omega-3 for autism spectrum disorders: effect on cell membrane composition and behavior. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2017. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2017.08.426
- Sheppard KW, Boone KM, Gracious B, et al. Effect of omega-3 and -6 supplementation on Language in preterm toddlers Exhibiting autism Spectrum Disorder symptoms. J Autism Dev Disord. 2017. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3249-3
- Boone KM, Gracious B, Klebanoff MA, Rogers LK, Rausch J, Coury DL, et al. Omega-3 and -6 fatty acid supplementation and sensory processing in toddlers with ASD symptomology born preterm: A randomized controlled trial. Early Hum Dev. 2017;115:64–70.
- Infante M, Sears B, Rizzo AM, Mariani CD, Caprio M, Ricordi C, et al. Omega-3 PUFAs and vitamin D co-supplementation as a safe-effective therapeutic approach for core symptoms of autism spectrum disorder: case report and literature review. Nutr Neurosci. 2018;13:1–12
- Mazahery H, Conlon CA, Beck KL, et al. A randomised controlled trial of vitamin D and omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in the treatment of irritability and hyperactivity among children with autism spectrum disorder. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2018. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.10.017.
- Mazahery H, Conlon CA, Beck KL, Mugridge O, Kruger MC, Stonehouse W, et al. A randomised-controlled trial of vitamin d and omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in the treatment of core symptoms of autism spectrum disorder in children. J Autism Dev Disord. 2019;49(5):1778–94.