Post-Traumatic Stress, Job Stressors, Psychological Capital and Job Outcomes: A Study of Pakistan Employees living under ongoing terrorism

References

• Abbas, M., and U. Raja. 2015. “Impact of Psychological Capital on Innovative Performance and Job Stress.” Canadian Journal of Adminstrative Science 32 (2): 128–138. doi:10.1002/cjas.1314.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abbas, M., U. Raja, W. Darr, and D. Bouckenooghe. 2012. “Combined Effects of Perceived Politics and Psychological Capital on Job Satisfaction, Turnover Intentions, and Performance.” Journal of Management 40 (7): 1813–1830. doi:10.1177/0149206312455243.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmed, B. 2013. “In Pakistan, It’s Not Just Soldiers with PTSD. Parallels: Many Stories, One World.” National Public Radio. Accessed 16 July 2015. https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2013/11/06/243527892/in-pakistan-its-not-just-soldiers-with-ptsd
   Google Scholar
• Ahuvia, A. 2001. “Well-being in Cultures of Choice: A Cross-cultural Perspective.” American Psychologist 56 (1): 77–78. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.56.1.77.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alarcon, G. M. 2011. “A Meta-analysis of Burnout with Job Demands, Resources, and Attitudes.” Journal of Vocational Behavior 79 (2): 549–562. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2011.03.007.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association (APA). 2013. Diagnostic and StatisticalManual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.
   Google Scholar
• Avey, J., F. Luthans, and S. Jensen. 2009. “Psychological Capital: A Positive Resource for Combating Employee Stress and Turnover.” Human Resource Management 48 (5): 677–693. doi:10.1002/hrm.20294.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avey, J. B., F. Luthans, and C. M. Youssef. 2010. “The Additive Value of Positive Psychological Capital in Predicting Work Attitudes and Behaviors.” Journal of Management 36 (2): 430–452. doi:10.1177/0149206308329961.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avey, J. B., R. J. Reichard, F. Luthans, and K. H. Mhatre. 2011. “Meta-analysis of the Impact of Positive Psychological Capital on Employee Attitudes, Behaviors, and Performance.” Human Resource Development Quarterly 22 (2): 127–152. doi:10.1002/hrdq.20070.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aziz, S. (n.d.). “This Is the Side of Pakistan that You Don’t See on ‘Homeland’”. GlobalPost. Accessed January7 2020. https://www.pri.org/stories/side-pakistan-you-dont-see-homeland
   Google Scholar
• Bader, A. K., C. Reade, and F. J. Froese. 2019. “Terrorism and Expatriate Withdrawal Cognitions: The Differential Role of Perceived Work and Non-work Constraints.” The International Journal of Human Resource Management 30 (11): 1769–1793. doi:10.1080/09585192.2016.1233448.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bentler, P. M., and D. G. Bonett. 1980. “Significance Tests and Goodness of Fit in the Analysis of Covariance Structures.” Psychological Bulletin 88 (3): 588–606. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.88.3.588.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bongar, B. M., L. M. Brown, L. E. Beutler, J. N. Breckenridge, and P. G. Zimbardo. 2007. Psychology of Terrorism. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Burke, R. J. 2012. “The Trauma Impact on Organizations: Causes, Consequences, and Remedies.” In International Handbook of Workplace Trauma Support, edited by R. Hughes, A. Kinder, and C. L. Cooper, 69–86. Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Byron, K., S. Khazanchi, and D. Nazarian. 2010. “The Relationship between Stressors and Creativity: A Meta-analysis Examining Competing Theoretical Models.” Journal of Applied Psychology 95 (1): 201–212. doi:10.1037/a0017868.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlier, I. V., R. D. Lamberts, and B. P. Gersons. 1997. “Risk Factors for Post-traumatic Stress Symptomatology in Police Officers: A Prospective Analysis.” The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 185 (8): 498–506. doi:10.1097/00005053-199708000-00004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cavanaugh, M. A., W. R. Boswell, M. V. Roehling, and J. W. Boudreau. 2000. “An Empirical Examination of Self-reported Work Stress among U.S. Managers.” Journal of Applied Psychology 85 (1): 65–74. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.85.1.65.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coyne, I. T. 1997. “Sampling in Qualitative Research. Purposeful and Theoretical Sampling; Merging or Clear Boundaries?” Journal of Advanced Nursing 26 (3): 623–630. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2648.1997.t01-25-00999.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crawford, E. R., J. LePine, and B. L. Rich. 2010. “Linking Job Demands and Resources to Employee Engagement and Burnout.” Journal of Applied Psychology 95 (5): 834–848. doi:10.1037/a0019364.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dawson, K. M., K. E. O’Brien, and T. A. Beehr. 2016. “The Role of Hindrance Stressors in the Job Demand–control–support Model of Occupational Stress: A Proposed Theory Revision.” Journal of Organizational Behavior 37 (3): 397–415. doi:10.1002/job.2049.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Rond, M., and J. Lok. 2016. “Some Things Can Never Be Unseen: The Role of Context in Psychological Injury at War.” Academy of Management Journal 59 (6): 1965–1993. doi:10.5465/amj.2015.0681.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eden, D. 2002. “From the Editors.” Academy of Management Journal 45 (5): 841–846. doi:10.5465/amj.2002.7718946.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gambino, L., and R. Jalabi. 2014. “Syria’s Civil War Has Forced 3m Refugees to Flee the Country – Why Is the US Accepting so Few?” The Guardian UK. Accessed 26 May 2015. http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/oct/06/syria-refugees-syria-civil-war-guide
   Google Scholar
• Haar, J. M. 2013. “Testing A New Measure of Work-life Balance: A Study of Parent and Non- Parent Employees from New Zealand.” The International Journal of Human Resource Management 24 (17): 3305–3324. doi:10.1080/09585192.2013.775175.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haar, J. M., M. Roche, and D. Taylor. 2012. “Work–family Conflict and Turnover Intentions of Indigenous Employees: The Importance of the Whanau/family for Maori.” The International Journal of Human Resource Management 23 (12): 2,546–2,560.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haar, J. M., M. Russo, A. Sune, and A. Ollier-Malaterre. 2014. “Outcomes of Work-life Balance on Job Satisfaction, Life Satisfaction and Mental Health: A Study across Seven Cultures.” Journal of Vocational Behavior 85 (3): 361–373. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2014.08.010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haar, J. M., and M. A. Roche. 2010. “Family Supportive Organization Perceptions and Employee Outcomes: The Mediating Effects of Life Satisfaction.” The International Journal of Human Resource Management 21 (7): 999–1,014. doi:10.1080/09585191003783462.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hair, J. F., W. C. Black, B. J. Babin, and R. E. Anderson. 2010. Multivariate Analyses. 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
   Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F. 2018a. Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Perspective. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F. 2018b. “Partial, Conditional, and Moderated Moderated Mediation: Quantification, Inference, and Interpretation.” Communication Monograph 85 (1): 4–40. doi:10.1080/03637751.2017.1352100.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hobfoll, S. E. 1989. “Conservation of Resources: A New Attempt at Conceptualizing Stress.” American Psychologist 44 (3): 513–524. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.44.3.513.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hobfoll, S. E. 2001. “The Influence of Culture, Community, and the Nested-self in the Stress Process: Advancing Conservation of Resources Theory.” Applied Psychology 50 (3): 337–421. doi:10.1111/1464-0597.00062.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hobfoll, S. E., D. Canetti-Nisim, R. J. Johnson, P. A. Palmieri, J. D. Varley, and S. Galea. 2008. “The Association of Exposure, Risk, and Resiliency Factors with PTSD among Jews and Arabs Exposed to Repeated Acts of Terrorism in Israel.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 21 (1): 9–21. doi:10.1002/jts.20307.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hobfoll, S. E., J. Halbesleben, J. P. Neveu, and M. Westman. 2018. “Conservation of Resources in the Organizational Context: The Reality of Resources and Their Consequences.” Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior 5 (1): 103–128. doi:10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032117-104640.
   Google Scholar
• Hobfoll, S. E., M. Tracy, and S. Galea. 2006. “The Impact of Resource Loss and Traumatic Growth on Probable PTSD and Depression following Terrorist Attacks.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 19 (6): 867–878. doi:10.1002/jts.20166.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hobfoll, S. E., P. A. Palmieri, R. J. Johnson, D. Canetti-Nisim, B. J. Hall, and S. Galea. 2009. “Trajectories of Resilience, Resistance, and Distress during Ongoing Terrorism: The Case of Jews and Arabs in Israel.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 77 (1): 138–148. doi:10.1037/a0014360.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hollebeek, L. D., and J. M. Haar. 2012. “Direct and Interaction Effects of Challenge and Hindrance Stressors Towards Job Outcomes.” New Zealand Journal of Employment Relations 37 (2): 58–76.
   Google Scholar
• Institute of Economics and Peace. 2019. Global Terrorism Index. New York: Institute of Economics and Peace. http://visionofhumanity.org/app/uploads/2019/11/GTI-2019web.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Johns, G. 2006. “The Essential Impact of Context on Organizational Behavior.” Academy of Management Review 31 (2): 386–408. doi:10.5465/amr.2006.20208687.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Judge, T. A., J. E. Bono, A. Erez, and E. A. Locke. 2005. “Core Self-evaluations and Job and Life Satisfaction: The Role of Self-concordance and Goal Attainment.” Journal of Applied Psychology 90 (2): 257–268. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.90.2.257.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Junaid, F., and J. M. Haar. 2015. “Employees Living under Terrorism: Does Positive Organisational Behaviour Provide a Lens for Help (And Hope)?” New Zealand Journal of Human Resource Management 15 (2): 174–190.
   Google Scholar
• Junaid, F. A., J. Haar, and J. Parker. 2018. “Local Employees Working in a Terrorist Region: HR Managers’ Perceptions.” Labour & Industry: A Journal of the Social and Economic Relations of Work 28 (4): 279–302. doi:10.1080/10301763.2018.1558692.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelloway, E. K., B. H. Gottlieb, and L. Barham. 1999. “The Source, Nature, and Direction of Work and Family Conflict: A Longitudinal Investigation.” Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 4 (4): 337–346. doi:10.1037/1076-8998.4.4.337.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• LePine, J. A., M., . A. LePine, and J., . R. Saul 2007 “Relationships among Work and Non-work Challenge and Hindrance Stressors and Non-work and Work Criteria: A Model of Cross-domain Stressor Effects.” P. L. Perrewé and D. C. Gansteredited by Exploring the Work and Non-work Interface. Vol. 6, 35–72. Ebook Emerald Group Publishing Limited
   Google Scholar
• LePine, J. A., N. P. Podsakoff, and M. A. LePine. 2005. “A Meta-analytic Test of the Challenge Stressor-hindrance Stressor Framework: An Explanation for Inconsistent Relationships among Stressors and Performance.” The Academy of Management Journal 48 (5): 764–775. doi:10.5465/amj.2005.18803921.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Locke, E. A. 1969. “What Is Job Satisfaction?” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 4 (4): 309–336. doi:10.1016/0030-5073(69)90013-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luthans, F., B. J. Avolio, J. B. Avey, and S. M. Norman. 2007. “Positive Psychological Capital: Measurement and Relationship with Performance and Satisfaction.” Personnel Psychology 60 (3): 541–572. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2007.00083.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luthans, F., C. M. Youssef-Morgan, and B. J. Avolio. 2015. Psychological Capital and Beyond. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Luthans, F., J. B. Avey, and J. L. Patera. 2008. “Experimental Analysis of a Web-based Training Intervention to Develop Positive Psychological Capital.” Academy of Management Learning & Education 7 (2): 209–221. doi:10.5465/amle.2008.32712618.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Center for PTSD. 2001. “Using the PTSD Checklist for DSM-IV (PCL).” //www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp
   Google Scholar
• National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence). 2005. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder. The Management of PTSD in Adults and Children in Primary and Secondary Care. London: National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg26/resources/posttraumatic-stress-disorder-management-975329451205
   Google Scholar
• North, C. S., L. Tivis, J. C. McMillen, B. Pfefferbaum, J. Cox, E. L. Spitznagel, K. Bunch, J. Schorr, and E. M. Smith. 2002. “Coping, Functioning, and Adjustment of Rescue Workers after the Oklahoma City Bombing.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 15 (3): 171–175. doi:10.1023/A:1015286909111.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Podsakoff, N. P., J. A. LePine, and M. A. LePine. 2007. “Differential Challenge Stressor-hindrance Stressor Relationships with Job Attitudes, Turnover Intentions, Turnover, and Withdrawal Behavior: A Meta-analysis.” Journal of Applied Psychology 92 (2): 438–454. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.92.2.438.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Podsakoff, P. M., S. B. MacKenzie, J. Y. Lee, and N. P. Podsakoff. 2003. “Common Method Biases in Behavioral Research: A Critical Review of the Literature and Recommended Remedies.” Journal of Applied Psychology 88 (5): 879–903. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raja, U., M. U. Azeem, I. U. Haq, and S. Naseer. 2020. “Perceived Threat of Terrorism and Employee Outcomes: The Moderating Role of Negative Affectivity and Psychological Capital.” Journal of Business Research 110: 316–326. doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.01.026.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reade, C., and H.-J. Lee. 2012. “Organizational Commitment in Time of War: Assessing the Impact and Attenuation of Employee Sensitivity to Ethnopolitical Conflict.” Journal of International Management 18 (1): 85–101. doi:10.1016/j.intman.2011.09.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roche, M., J. M. Haar, and F. Luthans. 2014. “The Role of Mindfulness and Psychological Capital on the Well-being of Leaders.” Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 19 (4): 476–489. doi:10.1037/a0037183.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schnurr, P. P., A. F. Hayes, C. A. Lunney, M. McFall, and M. Uddo. 2006. “Longitudinal Analysis of the Relationship between Symptoms and Quality of Life in Veterans Treated for Post-traumatic Stress Disorder.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 74 (4): 707–713. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.74.4.707.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shalev, A., and Y. Errera. 2009. Psychological Responses to Terrorism in Israel: 2000-2004. New York: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Toker, S., G. A. Laurence, and Y. Fried. 2015. “Fear of Terror and Increased Job Burnout over Time: Examining the Mediating Role of Insomnia and the Moderating Role of Work Support.” Journal of Organizational Behavior 36 (2): 272–291. doi:10.1002/job.1980.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vasterling, J. J., K. Brailey, J. I. Constans, and P. B. Sutker. 1998. “Attention and Memory Dysfunction in Post-traumatic Stress Disorder.” Neuropsychology 12 (1): 125–133. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.12.1.125.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wayne, S. J., G. Lemmon, J. M. Hoobler, G. W. Cheung, and M. S. Wilson. 2017. “The Ripple Effect: A Spillover Model of the Detrimental Impact of Work–family Conflict on Job Success.” Journal of Organizational Behavior 38 (6): 876–894. doi:10.1002/job.2174.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinberg, M., A. Besser, M. Campeas, E. Shvil, and Y. Neria. 2012. “Reactions of Civilians Exposed to Terrorism and War Trauma in Israel: The Role of Intra- and Interpersonal Factors.” Advances in PsychologyRresearch 94: 1–59.
   Google Scholar
• Williams, R., J. Bisson, D. Ajdukovic, V. Kemp, M. Olff, D. Alexander, … P. Bevan. 2009. Draft Guidance for Responding to the Psychosocial and Mental Health Needs of People Affected by Disasters or Major Incidents. Brussels: North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO).
   Google Scholar
• Woods, J. 2011. “The 9/11 Effect: Toward a Social Science of the Terrorist Threat.” The Social Science Journal 48 (1): 213–233. doi:10.1016/j.soscij.2010.06.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yao, A. Y., M. Jamal, and E. Demerouti. 2015. “Relationship of Challenge and Hindrance Stressors with Burnout and Its Three Dimensions.” Journal of Personnel Psychology 14 (4): 203–212. doi:10.1027/1866-5888/a000141.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar