Proportional Slowing or Disinhibition in ADHD? A Brinley Plot Meta‐analysis of Stroop Color and Word Test Performance

References

• American Psychiatric Association . 1980 . Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders , (3rd ed.) , Washington , DC : Author .
   Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association . 1987 . Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders , (3rd ed., text rev.) , Washington , DC : Author .
   Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association . 1994 . Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders , (4th ed.) , Washington , DC : Author .
   Google Scholar
• August , G. J. and Garfinkel , B. D. 1989 . Behavioral and cognitive subtypes of ADHD . Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 28 : 739 – 748 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• August , G. J. and Garfinkel , B. D. 1990 . Comorbidity of ADHD and reading disability among clinic‐referred children . Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology , 18 : 29 – 45 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barkley , R. 1996 . The North American perspective on Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder . The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist , 13 : 2 – 23 .
   Google Scholar
• Barkley , R. A. 1997 . Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD . Psychological Bulletin , 121 : 65 – 94 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barkley , R. 2001 . Genetics of childhood disorders: XVII. ADHD, Part 1: The executive functions and ADHD . Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 39 : 1064 – 1068 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barkley , R. 2003 . “ Attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder ” . In Child psychopathology , (2nd ed.) , Edited by: Mash , E. J. and Barkley , R. A. 75 – 143 . New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Barkley , R. A. , Grodzinsky , G. and DuPaul , G. J. 1992 . Frontal lobe functions in attention deficit disorder with and without hyperactivity: A review and research report . Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology , 20 : 163 – 188 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bashore , T. R. Jr. 1990 . “ Age‐related changes in mental processing revealed by analyses of event‐related brain potentials ” . In Event‐related brain potentials: Basic issues and applications , Edited by: Rohrbaugh , J. W. , Parasuraman , R. and Johnson , R. 242 – 275 . New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Bedard , A. , Ickowicz , A. and Tannock , R. 2002 . Methylphenidate improves Stroop naming speed, but not response interference, in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder . Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology , 12 : 301 – 309 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benton , A. L. 1994 . Neuropsychological assessment . Annual Reviews of Psychology , 45 : 1 – 23 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boucugnani , L. L. and Jones , R. W. 1989 . Behaviors analogous to frontal lobe dysfunction in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder . Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology , 4 : 161 – 173 .
   Google Scholar
• Brinley , J. F. 1965 . “ Cognitive sets, speed and accuracy of performance in the elderly ” . In Behavior, aging, and the nervous system: Biological determinants of speed of behavior and its changes with age , Edited by: Welford , A. T. and Birren , J. E. 114 – 149 . Springfield , IL : Charles C. Thomas .
   Google Scholar
• Brock , S. E. and Knapp , P. K. 1996 . Reading comprehension abilities of children with attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder . Journal of Attention Disorders , 1 : 173 – 185 .
   Google Scholar
• Brown , M. B. 2000 . Diagnosis and treatment of children and adolescents with Attention‐Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder . Journal of Counseling and Development , 78 : 195 – 203 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cantwell , D. P. 1996 . Attention deficit disorder: A review of the past 10 years . Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 35 : 978 – 987 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carte , E. T. , Nigg , J. T. and Hinshaw , S. P. 1996 . Neuropsychological functioning, motor speed, and language processing in boys with and without ADHD . Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology , 24 : 481 – 498 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carter , C. S. , Krener , P. , Chaderjian , M. , Northcutt , C. and Wolfe , V. 1995 . Abnormal processing of irrelevant information in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder . Psychiatry Research , 56 : 59 – 70 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cerella , J. 1985 . Information processing rates in the elderly . Psychological Bulletin , 98 : 67 – 83 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cerella , J. 1990 . “ Aging and information‐processing rate ” . In Handbook of the psychology of aging , (3rd ed.) , Edited by: Birren , J. E. and Schaie , K. W. 201 – 221 . San Diego, CA : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Cerella , J. 1994 . Generalized slowing in Brinley plots . Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences , 49 : 65 – 71 .
   Google Scholar
• Cerella , J. and Hale , S. 1994 . The rise and fall in information‐processing rates over the life span . Acta Psychologica , 86 : 109 – 197 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cerella , J. , Poon , L. W. and Williams , D. H. 1980 . “ Age and the complexity hypothesis ” . In Aging in the 1980s , Edited by: Poon , L. W. 332 – 340 . Washington, DC : American Psychological Association .
   Google Scholar
• Cohen , J. 1988 . Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences , (2nd ed.) , Hillsdale , NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Davis , H. and Anderson , M. 2001 . Developmental and individual differences in fluid intelligence: Evidence against the unidimensional hypothesis . British Journal of Developmental Psychology , 19 : 181 – 206 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denckla , M. B. 1996 . “ A theory and model of executive function: A neuropsychological approach ” . In Attention, memory, and executive function , Edited by: Lyon , G. R. and Krasnegor , N. A. 263 – 278 . Baltimore , MD : Paul H. Brookes .
   Google Scholar
• Ferraro , F. R. 1996 . Cognitive slowing in closed‐head injury . Brain and Cognition , 32 : 429 – 440 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisk , A. D. and Fisher , D. L. 1994 . Brinley plots and theories of aging: The explicit, muddled and implicit debates . Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences , 49 : 81 – 89 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Frazier , T. W. , Demaree , H. A. and Youngstrom , E. A. 2004 . Meta‐analysis of intellectual and neuropsychological test performance in attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder . Neuropsychology , 18 : 543 – 555 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fry , A. F. and Hale , S. 1996 . Processing speed, working memory, and fluid intelligence: Evidence for a developmental cascade . Psychological Science , 7 : 237 – 241 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuster , J. M. 1997 . The prefrontal cortex anatomy, physiology, and neuropsychology of the frontal lobes , (3rd ed.) , New York : Lippincott‐Raven .
   Google Scholar
• Gaultney , J. F. , Kipp , K. , Weinstein , J. and McNeil , J. 1999 . Inhibition and mental effort in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder . Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities , 11 (2) : 105 – 114 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Golden , C. J. 1978 . The Stroop Color and Word Test , Chicago , IL : Stoelting Company .
   Google Scholar
• Golden , Z. L. and Golden , C. J. 2002 . Patterns of performance on the Stroop Color and Word Test in children with learning, attentional, and psychiatric disabilities . Psychology in the Schools , 39 : 489 – 495 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gorenstein , E. E. , Mammato , C. A. and Sandy , J. M. 1989 . Performance of inattentive‐over‐active children on selected measures of prefrontal‐type function . Journal of Clinical Psychology , 45 : 619 – 632 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grodzinsky , G. M. and Diamond , R. 1992 . Frontal lobe functioning in boys with attention‐deficit hyperactivity disorder . Developmental Neuropsychology , 8 : 427 – 445 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hale , S. 1990 . A global developmental trend in cognitive processing speed . Child Development , 61 : 653 – 663 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hale , S. , Lima , S. and Myerson , J. 1991 . General cognitive slowing in the nonlexical domain: An experimental validation . Psychology and Aging , 6 : 512 – 521 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hardy , D. J. and Hinkin , C. H. 2002 . Reaction time slowing in adults with HIV: Results of a meta‐analysis using Brinley plots . Brain and Cognition , 50 : 25 – 34 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hardy , D. J. , Hinkin , C. H. , Satz , P. , Stenquist , P. K. , van Gorp , W. G. and Moore , L. H. 1999 . Age differences and neurocognitive performance in HIV‐infected adults . New Zealand Journal of Psychology , 28 : 94 – 101 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hardy , D. J. and Parasuraman , R. 1997 . Cognition and flight performance in older pilots . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied , 3 : 313 – 348 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hartley , A. A. 1992 . “ Attention ” . In The handbook of aging and cognition , Edited by: Craik , F. I. M. and Salthouse , T. A. 3 – 49 . Hillsdale , NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Hick , W. E. 1952 . On the rate of gain of information . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 4 : 11 – 26 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Homack , S. and Riccio , C. A. 2004 . A meta‐analysis of the sensitivity and specificity of the Stroop Color and Word Test with children . Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology , 19 : 725 – 743 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Houghton , S. , Douglas , G. , West , J. , Whiting , K. , Wall , M. Langsford , S. 1999 . Differential patterns of executive function in children with attention‐deficit hyperactivity disorder according to gender and subtype . Journal of Child Neurology , 14 : 801 – 805 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kail , R. 1991 . Developmental change in speed of processing during childhood and adolescence . Psychological Bulletin , 109 : 490 – 501 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kail , R. 1992 . General slowing of information‐processing by persons with mental retardation . American Journal in Mental Retardation , 97 : 333 – 341 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kail , R. 1994 . A method for studying the generalized slowing hypothesis in children with specific language impairment . Journal of Speech and Hearing Research , 37 : 418 – 421 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lavoie , M. E. and Charlebois , P. 1994 . The discriminant validity of the Stroop Color and Word Test: Toward a cost‐effective strategy to distinguish subgroups of disruptive preadolescents . Psychology in the Schools , 31 : 98 – 107 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawrence , V. , Houghton , S. , Douglas , G. , Durkin , K. , Whiting , K. and Tannock , R. 2004 . Executive function and ADHD: A comparison of children’s performance during neuropsychological testing and real‐world activities . Journal of Attention Disorders , 7 : 137 – 149 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Leung , P. W. L. and Connolly , K. J. 1996 . Distractibility in hyperactive and children . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 37 : 305 – 312 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lima , S. D. , Hale , S. and Myerson , J. 1991 . How general is general slowing? Evidence from the lexical domain . Psychology and Aging , 6 : 416 – 425 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lufi , D. , Cohen , A. and Parish‐Plass , J. 1990 . Identifying attention deficit hyperactivity with the WISC‐R and the Stroop Color and Word Test . Psychology in the Schools , 27 : 28 – 34 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacLeod , C. M. 1991 . Half a century of research on the Stroop effect: An integrative review . Psychological Bulletin , 109 : 163 – 203 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacLeod , C. M. and Prior , M. 1996 . Attention deficits in adolescents with ADHD and other clinical groups . Child Neuropsychology , 2 : 1 – 10 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madden , D. J. , Nebes , R. D. and Allen , P. A. 1992 . Cognitive slowing in Alzheimer’s disease as a function of task type and response type . Developmental Neuropsychology , 8 : 459 – 471 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller , D. C. , Kavcic , V. and Leslie , J. E. 1996 . ERP changes induced by methylphenidate in boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder . Journal of Attention Disorders , 1 : 95 – 113 .
   Google Scholar
• Myerson , J. , Ferraro , F. R. , Hale , S. and Lima , S. D. 1992 . General slowing in semantic priming and word recognition . Psychology and Aging , 7 : 257 – 270 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nebes , R. D. and Brady , C. B. 1992 . Generalized cognitive slowing and severity of dementia in Alzheimer’s disease: Implications for the interpretation of response‐time data . Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology , 14 : 317 – 326 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nebes , R. D. and Madden , D. J. 1988 . Different patterns of cognitive slowing produced by Alzheimer’s disease and normal aging . Psychology and Aging , 3 : 102 – 104 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nigg , J. T. 2001 . Is ADHD a disinhibitory disorder? . Psychological Bulletin , 127 : 571 – 598 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nigg , J. T. , Blaskey , L. G. , Huang‐Pollock , C. L. and Rappley , M. D. 2002 . Executive functions and DSM‐IV ADHD subtypes . Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 41 : 59 – 66 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nigg , J. T. , Hinshaw , S. P. , Carte , E. T. and Treuting , J. J. 1998 . Neuropsychological correlates of childhood attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Explainable by comorbid disruptive behavior or reading problems? . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 107 : 468 – 480 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nigg , J. T. , Willcutt , E. G. , Doyle , A. E. and Sonuga‐Barke , E. J. S. 2005 . Causal heterogeneity in attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Do we need neuropsychologically impaired subtypes? . Biological Psychiatry , 57 : 1224 – 1230 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Offord , D. R. , Boyle , M. H. , Szatmari , P. , Rae‐Grant , N. , Links , P. S. Cadman , D. T. 1987 . Ontario Child Health Study: II. Six‐month prevalence of disorder and rates of service utilization . Archives of General Psychiatry , 44 : 832 – 836 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pennington , B. F. and Ozonoff , S. 1996 . Executive functions and developmental psychopathology . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 37 : 51 – 87 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perugini , E. M. , Harvey , E. A. , Lovejoy , D. W. , Sandstrom , K. and Webb , A. H. 2000 . The predictive power of combined neuropsychological measures of attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children . Child Neuropsychology , 6 : 101 – 114 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reeve , W. V. and Schandler , S. L. 2001 . Frontal lobe functioning in adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity . Adolescence , 36 : 749 – 765 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rucklidge , J. J. and Tannock , R. 2002 . Neuropsychological profiles of adolescents with ADHD: Effects of reading difficulties and gender . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 43 : 988 – 1003 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salthouse , T. A. 1985 . “ Speed of behavior and its implications for cognition ” . In Handbook of the psychology of aging , (2nd ed.) , Edited by: Birren , J. E. and Schaie , K. W. 400 – 426 . New York : Van Nostrand Reinhold .
   Google Scholar
• Scheres , A. , Oosterlaan , J. , Geurts , H. , Morein‐Zamir , S. , Meiran , N. , Schut , H. , Vlasveld , L. and Sergeant , J. A. 2003 . Executive functioning in boys with ADHD: primarily an inhibition deficit? . Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology , 19 : 569 – 594 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seidman , L. J. , Biederman , J. , Faraone , S. V. , Milberger , S. , Norman , D. Seiverd , K. 1995 . Effects of family history and comorbidity on the neuropsychological performance of children with ADHD: Preliminary findings . Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 34 : 1015 – 1024 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seidman , H. J. , Biederman , J. , Faraone , S. V. , Weber , W. and Ouelette , C. 1997a . Toward a neuropsychology of attention deficit‐hyperactivity disorder: Performance of children and adolescents from a large clinically referred sample . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 65 : 150 – 160 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seidman , H. J. , Biederman , J. , Faraone , S. V. , Weber , W. , Mennin , D. and Jones , J. 1997b . A pilot study of neuropsychological function in girls with ADHD . Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 36 : 366 – 373 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seidman , L. J. , Biederman , J. , Mounteaux , M. C. , Weber , W. and Faraone , S. V. 2000 . Neuropsychological functioning in nonreferred siblings of children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 109 : 252 – 265 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seidman , L. J. , Biederman , J. , Monuteaux , M. C. , Valera , E. V. , Doyle , A. E. and Faraone , S. V. 2005 . Impact of gender and age on executive functioning: Do girls and boys with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder differ neuropsychologically in preteen and teenage years? . Developmental Neuropsychology , 27 : 79 – 105 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Semrud‐Clikeman , M. , Guy , K. , Griffin , J. D. and Hynd , G. W. 2000 . Rapid naming deficits in children and adolescents with reading disabilities and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder . Brain and Language , 74 : 70 – 83 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Semrud‐Clikeman , M. , Steingard , R. J. , Filipek , P. , Biederman , J. , Bekken , K. and Renshaw , P. F. 2000 . Using MRI to examine brain‐behavior relationships in males with attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity . Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 39 : 477 – 484 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , G. A. , Poon , L. W. , Hale , S. and Myerson , J. 1988 . A regular relationship between old and young adults’ latencies on their best, average and worst trials . Australian Journal of Psychology , 40 : 195 – 210 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stroop , J. R. 1935 . Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions . Journal of Experimental Psychology , 18 : 643 – 662 .
   Google Scholar
• Stuss , D. T. and Benson , D. F. 1986 . The frontal lobes , New York : Raven .
   Google Scholar
• Tannock , R. , Martinussen , R. and Fritjers , J. 2000 . Naming speed performance and stimulant effects indicate effortful, semantic processing deficits in Attention‐Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder . Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 28 : 237 – 252 .
   Google Scholar
• van Mourik , R. , Oosterlaan , J. and Sergeant , J. A. 2005 . The Stroop revisited: A meta‐analysis of interference control in AD/HD . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 46 : 150 – 165 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verhaeghen , P. , Cerella , J. , Bopp , K. L. and Basak , C. 2006 . “ Aging and varieties of cognitive control: A review of meta‐analyses on resistance to interference, coordination and task switching, and an experimental exploration of age‐sensitivity in the newly identified process of focus switching ” . In Cognitive limitations in aging and psychopathology: Attention, working memory, and executive functions , Edited by: Engle , R. W. , Sedek , G. , von Hecker , U. and McIntosh , D. N. Cambridge , MA : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Whalen , C. K. and Henker , B. 1991 . Social impact of stimulant treatment for hyperactive children . Journal of Learning Disabilities , 24 : 231 – 241 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willcutt , E. G. , Doyle , A. E. , Nigg , J. T. , Faraone , S. V. and Pennington , B. F. 2005 . Validity of the executive function theory of ADHD: A meta‐analytic review . Biological Psychiatry , 57 : 1336 – 1346 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willcutt , E. G. , Pennington , B. F. , Boada , R. , Ogline , J. S. , Tunick , R. A. Chhabildas , N. A. 2001 . A comparison of the cognitive deficits in reading disability and attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 110 : 157 – 172 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Windsor , J. and Hwang , M. 1999 . Testing the generalized slowing hypothesis in specific language impairment . Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research , 42 : 1205 – 1218 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Windsor , J. , Milbrath , R. , Carney , E. and Rakowski , S. 2001 . General slowing hypothesis in language impairment: Methodological considerations in testing the hypothesis . Journal of Speech, Language, Hearing Research , 44 : 446 – 461 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar