Reading and Related Skills in the Early School Years: Are boys really more likely to struggle?

References

• Aaron, P. G., Joshi, R. M., Gooden, R., & Bentum, K. E. (2008). Diagnosis and treatment of reading disabilities based on the component model of reading: An alternative to the discrepancy model of LD. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41, 67–84. doi: 10.1177/0022219407310838
   Google Scholar
• Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2008). Sydney a social atlas: 2006 census of population and housing (2031.1.2006). Retrieved from http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/DetailsPage/2030.12006?OpenDocument
   Google Scholar
• Australian Council for Educational Research. (1969). ACER word knowledge test. Melbourne, Australia: ACER.
   Google Scholar
• Baer, J., Baldi, S., Ayotte, K., & Green, P. J. (2007). The reading literacy of US fourth-grade students in an international context: Results from the 2001 and 2006 Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS). Washington, DC: US Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2008017
   Google Scholar
• Beaman, R., Wheldall, K., & Kemp, C. (2006). Differential teacher attention to boys and girls in the classroom. Educational Review, 58, 339–366. doi: 10.1080/00131910600748406
   Google Scholar
• Below , J. L. , Skinner , C. H. , Fearrington , J. Y. and Sorrell , C. A. 2010 . Gender differences in early literacy: Analysis of kindergarten through fifth-grade dynamic indicators of basic early literacy skills probes . School Psychology Review , 39 : 240 – 257 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan, D. W., Ho, C. S.-H., Tsang, S.-M., Lee, S.-H., & Chung, K. H. H. (2007). Prevalence, gender ratio and gender differences in reading-related cognitive abilities among Chinese children with dyslexia in Hong Kong. Educational Studies, 33, 249–265. doi: 10.1080/03055690601068535
   Google Scholar
• Chard, D. J., Stoolmiller, M., Harn, B. A., Wanzek, J., Vaughn, S., Linan-Thompson, S., et al. (2008). Predicting reading success in a multilevel schoolwide reading model. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41, 174–188. doi: 10.1177/0022219407313588
   Google Scholar
• Chatterji, M. (2006). Reading achievement gaps, correlates, and moderators of early reading achievement: Evidence from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS) kindergarten to first grade sample. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 489–507. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.98.3.489
   Google Scholar
• Cohen , J. 1992 . A power primer . Psychological Bulletin , 112 : 155 – 159 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dodd, B., Holm, A., Hua, Z., & Crosbie, S. (2003). Phonological development: A normative study of British English-speaking children. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 17, 617–643. doi:10.1080/0269920031000111348
   Google Scholar
• Dunn , L. M. and Dunn , D. M. 2007 . Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT-4) , 4th ed. , Minneapolis , MN : Pearson .
   Google Scholar
• Entwistle, D. R., Alexander, K. L., & Olson, L. S. (2007). Early schooling: The handicap of being poor and male. Sociology of Education, 80, 114–138. doi: 10.1177/003804070708000202
   Google Scholar
• Flannery , K. A. , Liederman , J. , Daly , L. and Schultz , J. 2000 . Male prevalence for reading disability is found in a large sample of Black and White children free from ascertainment bias . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 6 : 433 – 442 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fleming, C. B., Harachi, T. W., Cortes, R. C., Abbott, R. D., & Catalano, R. F. (2004). Level and change in reading scores and attention problems during elementary school as predictors of problem behavior in middle school. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 12, 130–144. doi: 10.1177/10634266040120030101
   Google Scholar
• Fluss, J., Ziegler, J. C., Warszawski, J., Ducot, B., Richard, G., & Billard, C. (2009). Poor reading in French elementary school: The interplay of cognitive, behavioural, and socioeconomic factors. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 30, 206–216. doi: 10.1097/DBP.0b013e3181a7ed6c
   Google Scholar
• Flynn, J. M., & Rahbar, M. H. (1994). Prevalence of reading failure in boys compared with girls. Psychology in the Schools, 31, 66–71. doi: 10.1002/1520-6807(199401)31:1<66::AID-PITS2310310109>3.0.CO;2-J
   Google Scholar
• Fuchs, D., Mock, D., Morgan, P. L., & Young, C. L. (2003). Responsiveness-to-intervention: Definitions, evidence, and implications for the learning disabilities construct. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 18, 157–171. doi: 10.1111/1540-5826.00072
   Google Scholar
• Galletly , S. A. , Knight , B. A. , Dekkers , J. and Galletly , T. A. 2009 . Indicators of late emerging reading-accuracy difficulties in Australian schools . Australian Journal of Teacher Education , 34 : 54 – 64 .
   Google Scholar
• Gilmore , A. , Croft , C. and Reid , N. 1981 . Burt word reading test — New Zealand revision , Wellington : New Zealand Council for Educational Research .
   Google Scholar
• Gorard, S., Rees, G., & Salisbury, J. (2001). Investigating the patterns of differential attainment of boys and girls at school. British Educational Research Journal, 27, 125–139. doi: 10.1080/01411920120037090
   Google Scholar
• Harper, S. N., & Pelletier, J. P. (2008). Gender and language issues in assessing early literacy: Group differences in children’s performance on the test of early reading ability. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 26, 185–194. doi: 10.1177/0734282908314105
   Google Scholar
• Hawke, J. L., Olson, R. K., Willcutt, E. G., Wadsworth, S. J., & DeFries, J. C. (2009). Gender ratios for reading difficulties. Dyslexia, 15, 239–242. doi: 10.1002/dys.389
   Google Scholar
• Hawke, J. L., Wadsworth, S. J., Olson, R. K., & DeFries, J. C. (2007). Etiology of reading difficulties as a function of gender and severity. Reading and Writing, 20, 13–25. doi: 10.1007/s11145-006-9016-z
   Google Scholar
• Hirvonen, R., Georgiou, G. K., Lerkkanen, M.-J., Aunola, K., & Nurmi, J.-E. (2009). Task-focused behaviour and literacy development: A reciprocal relationship. Journal of Research in Reading, 33(3), 302–319. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9817.2009.01415.x
   Google Scholar
• Hyde , J. S. 2005 . The gender similarities hypothesis . American Psychologist , 60 : 581 – 592 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lepola, J. (2004). The role of gender and reading competence in the development of motivational orientations from Kindergarten to Grade 1. Early Education & Development, 15, 215–240. doi: 10.1207/s15566935eed1502_5
   Google Scholar
• Liederman, J., Kantrowitz, L., & Flannery, K. (2005). Male vulnerability to reading disability is not likely to be a myth: A call for new data. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 109–129. doi: 10.1177/00222194050380020201
   Google Scholar
• Limbrick , L. , Wheldall , K. and Madelaine , A. 2008 . Gender ratios for reading disability: Are there really more boys than girls who are low-progress readers? . Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties , 13 : 161 – 179 .
   Google Scholar
• Limbrick , L. , Wheldall , K. and Madelaine , A. 2010 . Estimating gender ratios for poor reading using large-scale assessments . Australian Journal of Education , 54 : 190 – 222 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Limbrick , L. , Wheldall , K. and Madelaine , A. 2011 . Why do more boys than girls have a reading disability? A review of the evidence . Australasian Journal of Special Education , 35 : 1 – 12 .
   Google Scholar
• Linklater, D. L., O’Connor, R. E., & Palardy, G. J. (2009). Kindergarten literacy assessment of English only and English language learner students: An examination of the predictive validity of three phonemic awareness measures. Journal of School Psychology, 47, 369–394. doi: 10.1016/j.jsp.2009.08.001
   Google Scholar
• Lynn , R. and Mikk , J. 2009 . Sex differences in reading achievement . Trames , 13 : 3 – 13 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Machin, S., & Pekkarinen, T. (2008). Global sex differences in test score variability. Science, 322, 1331–1332. doi: 10.1126/science.1162573
   Google Scholar
• Martin , F. and Pratt , C. 2001 . The Martin and Pratt nonword reading test , Melbourne : ACER .
   Google Scholar
• Matthews, J. S., Ponitz, C. C., & Morrison, F. J. (2009). Early gender differences in self-regulation and academic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101, 689–704. doi: 10.1037/a0014240
   Google Scholar
• McCoach, D. B., O’Connell, A. A., & Levitt, H. (2006). Ability grouping across kindergarten using an early childhood longitudinal study. The Journal of Educational Research, 99, 339–346. doi: 10.3200/JOER.99.6.339-346
   Google Scholar
• Miles, T. R., Haslum, M. N., & Wheeler, T. J. (1998). Gender ratio in dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 48, 27–55. doi: 10.1007/s11881-998-0003-8
   Google Scholar
• Moura, S. R., Mezzomo, C. L., & Cielo, C. A. (2008). Phonemic awareness stimulation and its effects regarding the variable gender. Pró-Fono Revista de Atualização Científica, 21, 51–56. doi: 10.1590/S0104-56872009000100009
   Google Scholar
• Neilson , R. 2003a . Astronaut invented spelling test , Jamberoo , NSW : Language, Speech and Literacy Services .
   Google Scholar
• Neilson , R. 2003b . Sutherland phonological awareness test—revised (SPAT-R) , Jamberoo , NSW : Language, Speech and Literacy Services .
   Google Scholar
• Onatsu-Arvilommi , T. and Nurmi , J.-E. 2000 . The role of task-avoidant and task-focused behaviours in the development of reading and mathematical skills during the first school year: A cross-lagged longitudinal study . Journal of Educational Psychology , 92 : 478 – 491 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papadopoulos, T. C., Spanoudis, G., & Kendeou, P. (2009). The dimensionality of phonological abilities in Greek. Reading Research Quarterly, 44, 127–143. doi: 10.1598/RRQ.44.2.2
   Google Scholar
• Pereira-Laird , J. , Deane , F. P. and Bunnell , J. 1999 . Defining reading disability using a multifaceted approach . Learning Disability Quarterly , 22 : 59 – 71 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Philips , L.M. , Norris , S.P. and Steffler , D.J. 2007 . Potential risks to reading posed by high-dose phonics . Journal of Applied Research on Learning , 1 : 1 – 18 .
   Google Scholar
• Prior, M., Sanson, A., Smart, D., & Oberklaid, F. (1995). Reading disability in an Australian community sample. Australian Journal of Psychology, 47, 32–37. doi: 10.1080/00049539508258766
   Google Scholar
• Reynolds, M., Wheldall, K., & Madelaine, A. (2009). Building the WARL: The development of the Wheldall Assessment of Reading Lists, a curriculum-based measure designed to identify young struggling readers and monitor their progress. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 14, 89–111. doi: 10.1080/19404150902783443
   Google Scholar
• Rowe, K. J., & Rowe, K. S. (1999). Investigating the relationship between students’ attentive–inattentive behaviors in the classroom and their literacy progress. International Journal of Educational Research, 31, 1–138 (whole issue). doi: 10.1016/S0883-0355(98)00071-8
   Google Scholar
• Salahu-Din, D., Persky, H., & Miller, J. (2008). The nation’s report card: Writing 2007 (NCES 2008-468). Washington, DC: US Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/pdf/main2007/2008468.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Savage, R., & Carless, S. (2004). Predicting curriculum and test performance at age 7 years from pupil background, baseline skills and phonological awareness at age 5. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, 155–171. doi: 10.1348/000709904773839815
   Google Scholar
• Savage , R. , Carless , S. and Ferraro , V. 2007 . Predicting curriculum and test performance at age 11 years from pupil background, baseline skills and phonological awareness at age 5 years . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 48 : 732 – 739 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Semel , E. , Wiig , E. H. and Secord , W. A. 2003 . Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals , 4th ed. , San Antonio , TX : Psychological Corporation .
   Google Scholar
• Share , D.L. and Silva , P.A. 2003 . Gender bias in IQ-discrepancy and post-discrepancy definitions of reading disability . Journal of Learning Disabilities , 36 : 4 – 14 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaywitz , S.E. , Shaywitz , B.A. , Fletcher , J.M. and Escobar , M.D. 1990 . Prevalence of reading disability in boys and girls: Results of the Connecticut Longitudinal Study . The Journal of the American Medical Association , 22 : 998 – 1002 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siegel, L. S., & Smythe, I. S. (2005). Reflections on research on reading disability with special attention to gender issues. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 473–477. doi: 10.1177/00222194050380050901
   Google Scholar
• Singleton, C., Horne, J., & Thomas, K. (1999). Computerised baseline assessment of literacy. Journal of Research in Reading, 22, 67–80. doi: 10.1111/1467-9817.00070
   Google Scholar
• Skårbrevik, K. J. (2002). Gender differences among students found eligible for special education. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 17, 97–107. doi: 10.1080/08856250210129038a
   Google Scholar
• Smart , D. , Prior , M. , Sanson , A. and Oberklaid , F. 2001 . A six-year follow-up from early primary school to secondary school . Australian Journal of Psychology , 53 : 45 – 53 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Speece, D. L., & Pericola Case, L. (2001). Classification in context: An alternative approach to identifying early reading disability. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 735–749. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.93.4.735
   Google Scholar
• Stanovich, K. E. (1999). The sociopsychometrics of learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 32, 350–361. doi: 10.1177/002221949903200408
   Google Scholar
• Stevenson, J. (1992). Identifying sex differences in reading disability: Lessons from a twin study. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 4, 307–326. doi: 10.1007/BF01027711
   Google Scholar
• Strand, S., Deary, I. J., & Smith, P. (2006). Sex differences in cognitive abilities test scores: A UK national picture. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 463–480. doi: 10.1348/000709905X50906
   Google Scholar
• Torgesen , J.K. , Wagner , R.K. and Rashotte , C. 1999 . Test of word reading efficiency , Austin , TX : Pro-Ed Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• Wang, C., & Algozzine, B. (2008). Effects of targeted intervention on early literacy skills of at-risk students. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 22, 425–439. doi: 10.1080/02568540809594637
   Google Scholar
• Weindrich, D., Jennen-Steinmetz, C., Laucht, M., Esser, G., & Schmidt, M. (1998). At risk for language disorders? Correlates and course of language disorders in preschool children born at risk. Acta Pediatrica, 87, 1288–1294. doi: 10.1111/j.1651-2227.1998.tb00953.x
   Google Scholar
• Westwood , P. 1999 . Spelling: Approaches to teaching and assessment , Camberwell , VIC : ACER Press .
   Google Scholar
• Wheldall, K., & Limbrick, L. (2010). Do more boys than girls have reading problems? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43, 418–429. doi: 10.1177/0022219409355477
   Google Scholar
• Wheldall, K., & Madelaine, A. (2000). A curriculum-based passage reading test for monitoring the performance of low-progress readers: The development of the WARP. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 47, 371–382. doi: 10.1080/713671151
   Google Scholar
• Williams , K.T. 2007 . Expressive vocabulary test , 2nd ed. , Circle Pines , MN : AGS Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• Woodcock , R.W. 1987 . Woodcock reading mastery tests—revised , Circle Pines , MN : American Guidance Service .
   Google Scholar