Thyroid in pregnancy: From physiology to screening

References

• Krassas GE, Poppe K, Glinoer D. Thyroid function and human reproductive health. Endocr Rev 2010;31:702–55
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mandel SJ, Larsen PR, Seely EW, Brent GA. Increased need for thyroxine during pregnancy in women with primary hypothyroidism. N Engl J Med 1990;323:91–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexander EK, Marqusee E, Lawrence J, et al. Timing and magnitude of increases in levothyroxine requirements during pregnancy in women with hypothyroidism. N Engl J Med 2004;351:241–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarus JH, Kokandi A. Thyroid disease in relation to pregnancy: a decade of change. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2000;53:265–78
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Medici M, Korevaar TI, Visser WE, et al. Thyroid function in pregnancy: what is normal? Clin Chem 2015;61:704–13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yen PM. Physiological and molecular basis of thyroid hormone action. Physiol Rev 2001;1:1097–142
   Google Scholar
• Sirakov M, Skah S, Nadjar J, Plateroti M. Thyroid hormone’s action on progenitor/stem cell biology: new challenge for a classic hormone? Biochimica Et Biophysica Acta 2013;1830:3917–27
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forhead AJ, Fowden AL. Thyroid hormones in fetal growth and prepartum maturation. J Endocrinol 2014;221:R87–103
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Preau L, Fini JB, Morvan-Dubois G, Demeneix B. Thyroid hormone signaling during early neurogenesis and its significance as a vulnerable window for endocrine disruption. Bioch Biophys Act 2015;1849:112–21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kapoor R, Fanibunda SE, Desouza LA, et al. Perspectives on thyroid hormone action in adult neurogenesis. J Neurochem 2015; 133:599–616
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown RS. Disorders of the thyroid gland in infancy, childhood and adolescence. Endotext [Online] 2012;45:735–8. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279032/ [last accessed 12 May 2016]
   Google Scholar
• Soldin OP, Soldin D, Sastoque M. Gestation-specific thyroxine and thyroid stimulating hormone levels in the United States and worldwide. Ther Drug Monit 2007;29:553–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahay RK, Nagesh V. Hypothyroidism in pregnancy. Indian J Endocrinol Metab 2012;16:364–70
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hume R, Simpson J, Delahunty C, et al. Human fetal and cord serum thyroid hormones: developmental trends and interrelationships. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89:4097–103
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang X, Li C, Mao J, et al. Gestation-specific changes in maternal thyroglobulin during pregnancy and lactation in an iodine-sufficient region in China: a longitudinal study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2016. [Epub ahead of print]. doi:10.1111/cen.13175
   Google Scholar
• Bilek R, Cerovska J, Zamrazil V. The relationship between iodine intake and serum thyroglobulin in the general population. Physiol Res 2015;64:345–53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ma ZF, Skeaf SA. Thyroglobulin as a biomarker of iodine deficiency: a review. Thyroid 2014;24:1195–209
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maia AL, Goemann IM, Meyer EL, Wainer SM. Deiodinases: the balance of thyroid hormone: type 1 iodothyronine deiodinase in human physiology and disease. J Endocrinol 2011;209:283–97
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kester MH, Kaptein E, Van Dijk CH, et al. Characterization of iodothyronine sulfatase activities in human and rat liver and placenta. Endocrinology 2002;143:814–19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van der Geyten S, Segers I, Gereben B, et al. Transcriptional regulation of iodothyronine deiodinases during embryonic development. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2001;183:1–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morreale de Escobar G, Obregon MJ, Escobar del Rey F. Is neuropsychological development related to maternal hypothyroidism or to maternal hypothyroxinemia? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000;85:3975–87
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferreiro B, Bernal J, Goodyer CG, Branchard CL. Estimation of nuclear thyroid hormone receptor saturation in human foetal brain and lung during early gestation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988;67:853–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stagnaro-Green A, Sullivan S, Pearce EN. Iodine supplementation during pregnancy and lactation. JAMA 2012;308:2463–4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bath SC, Steer CD, Golding J, et al. Effect of inadequate iodine status in UK pregnant women on cognitive outcomes in their children: results from the Avon longitudinal study of parents and children (ALSPAC). Lancet 2013;382:331–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andersson M, Karumbunathan V, Zimmermann MB. Global iodine status in 2011 and trends over the past decade. J Nutr 2012;142:744–50
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zimmermann MB, Gizak M, Abbott K, et al. Iodine deficiency in pregnant women in Europe. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2015;3:672–4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jiskra J, Fait T, Bilek R, et al. Mild iodine deficiency in women after spontaneous abortions living in an iodine-sufficient area of Czech Republic: prevalence and impact on reproductive health. Clin Endocrinol 2014;80:452–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO Secretariat, Andersson M, de Benoist B, et al. Prevention and control of iodine deficiency in pregnant and lactating women and in children less than 2-years-old: conclusions and recommendations of the Technical Consultation. Public Health Nutr 2007;10:1606–11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarus J, Brown RS, Daumerie C, et al. European Thyroid Association guidelines for the management of subclinical hypothyroidism in pregnancy and in children. Eur Thyroid J 2014;3:76–94
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• De Groot L, Abalovich M, Alexander EK, et al. Management of thyroid dysfunction during pregnancy and postpartum: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012;97:2543–65
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abalovich M, Gutierrez S, Alcaraz G, et al. Overt and subclinical hypothyroidism complicating pregnancy. Thyroid 2002;12:63–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allan WC, Haddow JE, Palomaki GE, et al. Maternal thyroid deficiency and pregnancy complications: implications for population screening. J Med Screen 2000;7:127–30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mannisto T, Mendola P, Grewal J, et al. Thyroid diseases and adverse pregnancy outcomes in a contemporary US cohort. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013;98:2725–33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stagnaro-Green A, Abalovich M, Alexander E, et al. Guidelines of the American Thyroid Association for the diagnosis and management of thyroid disease during pregnancy and postpartum. Thyroid 2011;21:1081–125
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Potlukova E, Potluka O, Jiskra J, et al. Is age a risk factor for hypothyroidism in pregnancy? An analysis of 5223 pregnant women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012;97:1945–52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blatt AJ, Nakamoto JM, Kaufman HW. National status of testing for hypothyroidism during pregnancy and postpartum. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012;97:777–84
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casey BM, Dashe JS, Wells CE, et al. Subclinical hypothyroidism and pregnancy outcomes. Obstet Gynecol 2005;105:239–45
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaidya B, Anthony S, Bilous M, et al. Detection of thyroid dysfunction in early pregnancy: universal screening or targeted high-risk case finding? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007;92:203–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haddow JE, Palomaki GE, Allan WC, et al. Maternal thyroid deficiency during pregnancy and subsequent neuropsychological development of the child. N Eng J Med 1999;341:549–55
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morreale de Escobar G, Obregon MJ, Escobar del Rey F. Role of thyroid hormone during early brain development. Eur J Endocrinol 2004;151:U25–37
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pop VJ, Brouwers EP, Vader HL, et al. Maternal hypothyroxinaemia during early pregnancy and subsequent child development: a 3-year follow-up study. Clin Endocrinol 2003;59:282–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henrichs J, Bongers-Schokking JJ, Schenk JJ, et al. Maternal thyroid function during early pregnancy and cognitive functioning in early childhood: the generation R study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010;95:4227–34
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarus JH, Bestwick JP, Channon S, et al. Antenatal thyroid screening and childhood cognitive function. N Eng J Med 2012;366:493–501
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korevaar TI, Muetzel R, Medici M, et al. Association of maternal thyroid function during early pregnancy with offspring IQ and brain morphology in childhood: a population-based prospective cohort study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2016;4:35–43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Busnelli A, Somigliana E, Benaglia L. Thyroid axis dysregulation during in vitro fertilization in hypothyroid-treated patients. Thyroid 2014;24:1650–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morelli SS, Mandal M, Goldsmith LT, et al. The maternal immune system during pregnancy and its influence on foetal development. Res Report Biol [Online] 2015;6:171–89. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/RRB.S80652 [last accessed 12 May 2016]
   Google Scholar
• Kwak-Kim J, Bao S, Lee SK, et al. Immunological modes of pregnancy loss: inflammation, immune effectors, and stress. Am J Reprod Immunol 2014;72:129–40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim NY, Cho HJ, Kim HY, et al. Thyroid autoimmunity and its association with cellular and humoral immunity in women with reproductive failures. Am J Reprod Immunol 2011;65:78–87
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Medici M, de Rijke YB, Peeters RP, et al. Maternal early pregnancy and newborn thyroid hormone parameters: the generation R study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012;97:646–52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shields BM, Knight BA, Hill AV, et al. Five-year follow-up for women with subclinical hypothyroidism in pregnancy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013;98:E1941–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nambiar V, Jagtap VS, Sarathi V, et al. Prevalence and impact of thyroid disorders on maternal outcome in Asian-Indian pregnant women. J Thyroid Res 2011;2011:429097
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Medici M, Porcu E, Pistis G, et al. Identification of novel genetic Loci associated with thyroid peroxidase antibodies and clinical thyroid disease. PLoS Genet 2014;10:e1004123
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jayaraman M, Verma A, Harikumar KV, et al. Pregnancy outcomes with thyroxine replacement for subclinical hypothyroidism: role of thyroid autoimmunity. Indian J Endocrinol Metab 2013;17:294–7
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bagis T, Gokcel A, Saygili ES. Autoimmune thyroid disease in pregnancy and the postpartum period: relationship to spontaneous abortion. Thyroid 2001;11:1049–53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feki M, Omar S, Menif O, et al. Thyroid disorders in pregnancy: frequency and association with selected diseases and obstetrical complications in Tunisian women. Clin Biochem 2008;41:927–31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pradhan M, Anand B, Singh N, Mehrotra M. Thyroid peroxidase antibody in hypothyroidism: it’s effect on pregnancy. J Matern Foetal Neonatal Med 2013;26:581–3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rasmussen UF, Bliddal S. TPOAbs as a risk factor in pregnancy. Thyroid Int 2014;3:3–20
   Google Scholar
• Toulis KA, Goulis DG, Venetis CA, et al. Risk of spontaneous miscarriage in euthyroid women with thyroid autoimmunity undergoing IVF: a meta-analysis. Eur J Endocrinol 2010;4:643–52
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thangaratinam S, Tan A, Knox E, et al. Association between thyroid autoantibodies and miscarriage and preterm birth: meta-analysis of evidence. BMJ 2011;9:d2616
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen LM, Zhang Q, Si GX, et al. Associations between thyroid autoantibody status and abnormal pregnancy outcomes in euthyroid women. Endocrine 2015;48:924–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim CH, Ahn JW, Kang SP, et al. Effect of levothyroxine treatment on in vitro fertilization and pregnancy outcome in infertile women with subclinical hypothyroidism undergoing in vitro fertilization/intracytoplasmic sperm injection. Fertil Steril 2011;95:1650–4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor PN, Minassian C, Rehman A, et al. TSH levels and risk of miscarriage in women on long-term levothyroxine: a community-based study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2014;99:3895–902
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stagnaro-Green A, Chen X, Bogden JD, et al. The thyroid and pregnancy: a novel risk factor for very preterm delivery. Thyroid 2005;15:351–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• He X, Wang P, Wang Z, et al. Thyroid antibodies and risk of preterm delivery: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Eur J Endocrinol 2012;167:455–64
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Debieve F, Duliere S, Bernard P, et al. To treat or not to treat euthyroid autoimmune disorder during pregnancy? Gynecol Obstet Invest 2009;67:178–82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tierney K, Delpachitra P, Grossmann M, et al. Thyroid function and autoantibody status among women who spontaneously deliver under 35 weeks of gestation. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2009;71:892–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abbassi-Ghanavati M, Casey BM, Spong CY, et al. Pregnancy outcomes in women with thyroid peroxidase antibodies. Obstet Gynecol 2010;116:381–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cleary-Goldman J, Malone FD, Lambert-Messerlian G, et al. Maternal thyroid hypofunction and pregnancy outcome. Obstet Gynecol 2008;112:85–92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korevaar TI, Schalekamp-Timmermans S, de Rijke YB, et al. Hypothyroxinemia and TPO-antibody positivity are risk factors for premature delivery: the generation R study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013;98:4382–90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Negro R, Schwartz A, Gismondi R, et al. Thyroid antibody positivity in the first trimester of pregnancy is associated with negative pregnancy outcomes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011;96:E920–4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haddow JE, Cleary-Goldman J, McClain MR, et al. First- and second-trimester risk of aneuploidy (FASTER) research consortium. Thyroperoxidase and thyroglobulin antibodies in early pregnancy and preterm delivery. Obstet Gynecol 2010;116:58–62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen X, Jin B, Xia J, et al. Effects of thyroid peroxidase antibody on maternal and neonatal outcomes in pregnant women in an iodine-sufficient area in China. Int J Endocrinol 2016;2016:6461380
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumru P, Erdogdu E, Arisoy R, et al. Effect of thyroid dysfunction and autoimmunity on pregnancy outcomes in low risk population. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2015;291:1047–54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jiskra J, Bartakova J, Holinka S, et al. Low concordance between positive antibodies to thyroperoxidase and thyroid ultrasound autoimmune pattern in pregnant women. Endocr J 2011;58:849–59
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stagnaro-Green A, Roman SH, Cobin RH, et al. Detection of at-risk pregnancy by means of highly sensitive assays for thyroid autoantibodies. JAMA 1990;264:1422–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iijima T, Tada H, Hidaka Y, et al. Effects of autoantibodies on the course of pregnancy and fetal growth. Obstet Gynecol 1997;9:364–9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker JA, Illions EH, Huddleston JF, et al. Racial comparisons of thyroid function and autoimmunity during pregnancy and the postpartum period. Obstet Gynecol 2005;106:1365–71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Branch BD, Gibson M, Silver R. Clinical practice. Recurrent miscarriage. N Engl J Med 2010;363:1740–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Negro R, Formoso G, Mangieri T, et al. Levothyroxine treatment in euthyroid pregnant women with autoimmune thyroid disease: effects on obstetrical complications. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006;91:2587–91
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Negro R, Mangieri T, Coppola L, et al. Levothyroxine treatment in thyroid peroxidase antibodypositive women undergoing assisted reproduction technologies: a prospective study. Hum Reprod 2005;20:1529–33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vissenberg R, Fliers E, van der Post JA, et al. Live-birth rate in euthyroid women with recurrent miscarriage and thyroid peroxidase antibodies. Gynecol Endocrinol 2016;32:132–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartáková J, Potluková E, Rogalewicz V, et al. Screening for autoimmune thyroid disorders after spontaneous abortion is cost-saving and it improves the subsequent pregnancy rate. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2013;13:217
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vissenberg R, van Dijk MM, Fliers E, et al. Effect of levothyroxine on live birth rate in euthyroid women with recurrent miscarriage and TPO antibodies (T4-LIFE study). Contemp Clin Trials 2015;5:S1551–7144
   Google Scholar
• Pop VJ, de Vries E, van Baar AL, et al. Maternal thyroid peroxidase antibodies during pregnancy: a marker of impaired child development? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995;80:3561–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wasserman EE, Nelson K, Rose NR, et al. Maternal thyroid autoantibodies during the third trimester and hearing deficits in children: an epidemiologic assessment. Am J Epidemiol 2008;167:701–10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li Y, Shan Z, Teng W, et al. Abnormalities of maternal thyroid function during pregnancy affect neuropsychological development of their children at 25–30 months. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2010;72:825–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams FL, Watson J, Ogston SA, et al. Maternal and umbilical cord levels of T4, FT4, TSH, TPOAb, and TgAb in term infants and neurodevelopmental outcome at 5.5 years. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013;98:829–38
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oken E, Braverman LE, Platek D, et al. Neonatal thyroxine, maternal thyroid function, and child cognition. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009;94:497–503
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wasserman EE, Pillion JP, Duggan A, et al. Childhood IQ, hearing loss, and maternal thyroid autoimmunity in the Baltimore Collaborative Perinatal Project. Pediatr Res 2012;72:525–30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson RE, Salihu HM, Groer MW, et al. Impact of maternal thyroperoxidase status on fetal body and brain size. J Thyroid Res 2014;2014:872410
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ghassabian A, Bongers-Schokking JJ, de Rijke YB, et al. Maternal thyroid autoimmunity during pregnancy and the risk of attention deficit/hyperactivity problems in children: the Generation R Study. Thyroid 2012;22:178–86
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pakkila F, Mannisto T, Pouta A, et al. The impact of gestational thyroid hormone concentrations on ADHD symptoms of the child. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2014;99:E1–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glinoer D, Rihai M, Grün JP, et al. Risk of subclinical hypothyroidism in pregnant women with asymptomatic autoimmune thyroid disorders. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994;79:179–204
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazzarin N, Moretti C, De Felice G, et al. Further evidence on the role of thyroid autoimmunity in women with recurrent miscarriage. Int J Endocrinol 2012;2012:717185
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weetman AP. Diseases associated with thyroid autoimmunity: explanations for the expanding spectrum. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2011;74:411–18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baloch Z, Carayon P, Conte-Devolx B, et al. Guidelines committee, National academy of clinical biochemistry. Laboratory medicine practice guidelines. Laboratory support for the diagnosis and monitoring of thyroid disease. Thyroid 2003;13:3–126
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stricker R, Echenard M, Eberhart R, et al. Evaluation of maternal thyroid function during pregnancy: the importance of using gestational age-specific reference intervals. Eur J Endocrinol 2007;157:509–14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mannisto T, Surcel HM, Ruokonen A, et al. Early pregnancy reference intervals of thyroid hormone concentrations in a thyroid antibody-negative pregnant population. Thyroid 2011;21:291–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hershman JM. The role of human chorionic gonadotropin as a thyroid stimulator in normal pregnancy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008;93:3305–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baskin HJ, Cobin RH, Duick DS, et al. AACE medical guidelines for clinical practice for the evaluation and treatment of hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. Endocr Pract 2002;8:457–67
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• La’ulu SL, Roberts WL. Ethnic differences in first-trimester thyroid reference intervals. Clin Chem 2011;57:913–15
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• La’ulu SL, Roberts WL. Second-trimester reference intervals for thyroid tests: the role of ethnicity. Clin Chem 2007;53:1658–64
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korevaar TI, Medici M, de Rijke YB, et al. Ethnic differences in maternal thyroid parameters during pregnancy: the generation R study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013;98:3678–86
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yan YQ, Dong ZL, Dong L, et al. Trimester- and methodspecific reference intervals for thyroid tests in pregnant Chinese women: methodology, euthyroid definition and iodine status can influence the setting of reference intervals. Clin Endocrinol 2011;74:262–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bestwick JP, John R, Maina A, et al. Thyroid stimulating hormone and free thyroxine in pregnancy: expressing concentrations as multiples of the median (MoMs). Clin Chim Acta 2014;430:33–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pearce EN, Oken E, Gillman MW, et al. Association of first-trimester thyroid function test values with thyroperoxidase antibody status, smoking, and multivitamin use. Endocr Pract 2008;14:33–9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Springer D, Zima T, Limanova Z. Reference intervals in evaluation of maternal thyroid function during the first trimester of pregnancy. Eur J Endocrinol 2009;160:791–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shen FX, Xie ZW, Lu SM, et al. Gestational thyroid reference intervals in antibody-negative Chinese women. Clin Biochem 2014;47:673–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bocos-Terraz JP, Izquierdo-Alvarez S, Bancalero-Flores JL, et al. Thyroid hormones according to gestational age in pregnant Spanish women. BMC Res Notes 2009;2:237
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gilbert RM, Hadlow NC, Walsh JP, et al. Assessment of thyroid function during pregnancy: first-trimester (weeks 9-13) reference intervals derived from Western Australian women. Med J Aust 2008;189:250–3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xing J, Yuan E, Li J, et al. Trimester- and assay-specific thyroid reference intervals for pregnant women in china. Int J Endocrinol 2016;2016:3754213
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karakosta P, Chatzi L, Bagkeris E, et al. First- and second trimester reference intervals for thyroid hormones during pregnancy in ‘Rhea’ mother-child cohort, Crete, Greece. J Thyroid Res 2011;2011:490783
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Haddow JE, Knight GJ, Palomaki GE, et al. The reference range and within- person variability of thyroid stimulating hormone during the first and second trimesters of pregnancy. J Med Screen 2004;11:170–4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lambert-Messerlian G, McClain M, Haddow JE, et al. First- and second-trimester thyroid hormone reference data in pregnant women: a FASTER (first- and second-trimester evaluation of risk for aneuploidy) research consortium study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2008;199:62e1–6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li C, Shan Z, Mao J, et al. Assessment of thyroid function during first-trimester pregnancy: what is the rational upper limit of serum TSH during the first trimester in Chinese pregnant women? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2014;99:73–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang QW, Yu B, Huang R, et al. Assessment of thyroid function during pregnancy: the advantage of self-sequential longitudinal reference intervals. Arch Med Sci 2011;7:679–84
   Google Scholar
• Zhang J, Li W, Chen QB, et al. Establishment of trimester-specific thyroid stimulating hormone and free thyroxine reference interval in pregnant Chinese women using the Beckman Coulter UniCelTM DxI 600. Clin Chem Lab Med 2015;53:1409–14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fiddes JC, Goodman HM. The gene encoding the common alpha subunit of the four human glycoprotein hormones. J Mol Appl Genet 1981;1:3–18
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Glinoer D, de Nayer P, Bourdoux P, et al. Regulation of maternal thyroid during pregnancy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1990;71:276–87
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stöckl D, Van Uytfanghe K, Van Aelst S, Thienpont LM. A statistical basis for harmonization of thyroid stimulating hormone immunoassays using a robust factor analysis model. Clin Chem Lab Med 2014;52:965–72
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anckaert E, Poppe K, Van Uytfanghe K, et al. FT4 immunoassays may display a pattern during pregnancy similar to the equilibrium dialysis ID–LC/tandem MS candidate reference measurement procedure in spite of susceptibility towards binding protein alterations. Clinica Chimica Acta 2010;411:1348–53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soldin JS, Soukhova N, Janicic N, et al. The measurement of free thyroxine by isotope dilution tandem mass spectrometry. Clin Chim Acta 2005;358:113–18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thienpont LM, International Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine (IFCC), Scientific Division Working Group for Standardization of Thyroid Function Tests (WG-STFT), et al. Measurement of free thyroxine in laboratory medicine–proposal of measurement definition. Clin Chem Lab Med 2007;45:563–4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thienpont LM, IFCC, Scientific Division Working Group for Standardization of Thyroid Function Tests (WGSTFT), et al. Proposal of a candidate international conventional reference measurement procedure for free thyroxine in serum. Clin Chem Lab Med 2007;45:934–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thienpont LM, Van Uytfanghe K, Beastall G, et al. Report of the IFCC working group for standardization of thyroid function tests, part 2: free thyroxine and free triiodothyronine. Clin Chem 2010;56:912–20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vila L, Velasco I, Gonzales S, et al. Controversies in endocrinology: on the need for universal thyroid screening in pregnant women. Eur J Endocrinol 2014;170:R17–30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mandel SJ, Spencer CA, Hollowell JG. Are detection and treatment of thyroid insufficiency in pregnancy feasible? Thyroid 2005;15:44–53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Midgley JE, Hoermann R. Measurement of total rather than free thyroxine in pregnancy: the diagnostic implications. Thyroid 2013;23:259–61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madariaga AG, Palacios SS, Guillen-Grima F, Galofre JC. The incidence and prevalence of thyroid dysfunction in Europe: a meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010;99:923–31
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dosiou C, Giudice LC. Natural killer cells in pregnancy and recurrent pregnancy loss: endocrine and immunologic perspectives. Endocr Rev 2005;26:44
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Springer D, Bartos V, Zima T. Reference intervals for thyroid markers in early pregnancy determined by 7 different analytical systems. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 2014;74:95–101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zamrazil V, Bilek R, Cerovska J, et al. The elimination of iodine deficiency in the Czech Republic: the steps toward success. Thyroid 2004;14:49–56
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaidya B, Hubalewska-Dydejczyk A, Laurberg P, et al. Treatment and screening of hypothyroidism in pregnancy: results of a European survey. Eur J Endocrinol 2012;166:49–54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vila L, Velasco I, Gonzalez S, et al. [Universal screening of thyroid dysfunction in the pregnant population]. Endocrinol Nutr 2013;60:407–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reid SM, Middleton P, Cossich MC, et al. Interventions for clinical and subclinical hypothyroidism pre-pregnancy and during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013;5:CD007752
   Google Scholar
• Dosiou C, Barnes J, Schwartz A, et al. Cost-effectiveness of universal and risk-based screening for autoimmune thyroid disease in pregnant women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012;97:1536–46
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thung SF, Funai EF, Grobman WA. The cost-effectiveness of universal screening in pregnancy for subclinical hypothyroidism. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2009;200:267e1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horacek J, Spitalniková S, Dlabalova B, et al. Universal screening detects two-times more thyroid disorders in early pregnancy than targeted high-risk case finding. Eur J Endocrinol 2010;163:645–50
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pop VJ. Pregnancy, postpartum and the thyroid: isn’t it time to offer women optimal care? Facts Views Vis Obgyn 2014;6:166–70
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stagnaro-Green A. Optimal care of the pregnant woman with thyroid disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol 2012;97:2619–22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Limanova Z, Springer D. [Thyreopathy examination during pregnancy–results of pilot project]. Casopis Lekaru Ceskych 2011;150:389–93
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yang H, Shao M, Chen L, et al. Screening strategies for thyroid disorders in the first and second trimester of pregnancy in China. PLoS One 2014;9:e99611
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stagnaro-Green A. Screening pregnant women for overt thyroid disease. JAMA 2015;313:565–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lepoutre T, Debieve F, Gruson D, Daumerie C. Reduction of miscarriages through universal screening and treatment of thyroid autoimmune diseases. Gynecol Obstet Invest 2012;74:265–73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor PN, Okosieme OE, Premawardhana L, Lazarus JH. Should all women be screened for thyroid dysfunction in pregnancy? Womens Health (Lond) 2015;11:295–307
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson JMG, Jungner G. Principles and Practice of Screening for Disease. Geneva: WHO, 1968. Available from: http://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/86/4/07-050112BP.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Negro R, Schwartz A, Gismondi R, et al. Universal screening versus case finding for detection and treatment of thyroid hormonal dysfunction during pregnancy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010;95:1699–707
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar