Non-antibiotic therapy for Clostridioides difficile infection: a review

References

• Xu Q, Chen Y, Gu S. Hospital-acquired Clostridium difficile infection in Mainland China: a seven-year (2009–2016) retrospective study in a large university hospital. Sci Rep. 2017;7:9645.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jenior ML, Leslie JL, Young VB, et al. Clostridium difficile colonizes alternative nutrient niches during infection across distinct murine gut microbiomes. Msystems. 2017;2. DOI: 10.1128/mSystems.00063-17.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pakpour S, Bhanvadia A, Zhu R, et al. Identifying predictive features of Clostridium difficile infection recurrence before, during, and after primary antibiotic treatment. Microbiome. 2017;5:148.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smits WK, Lyras D, Lacy DB, et al. Clostridium difficile infection. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2016;2:16020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barron J, Lattes A, Marcus EL. Rash induced by enteral vancomycin therapy in an older patient in a long-term care ventilator unit: case report and review of the literature. Allergy Asthma Clin Immunol. 2018;14:73.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aptekorz M, Szczegielniak A, Wiechuła B, et al. Occurrence of Clostridium difficile ribotype 027 in hospitals of Silesia, Poland. Anaerobe. 2017;45:106–113.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shen NT, Maw A, Tmanova LL, et al. Timely use of probiotics in hospitalized adults prevents Clostridium difficile infection: a systematic review with meta-regression analysis. Gastroenterology. 2017;152:1889–1900 e9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlucci C, Petrof EO, Allen-Vercoe E. Fecal microbiota-based therapeutics for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection, ulcerative colitis and obesity. EBioMedicine. 2016;13:37–45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guo S, Yan W, McDonough SP, et al. The recombinant Lactococcus lactis oral vaccine induces protection against C. difficile spore challenge in a mouse model. Vaccine. 2015;33:1586–1595.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hryckowian AJ, Van Treuren W, Smits SA, et al. Microbiota-accessible carbohydrates suppress Clostridium difficile infection in a murine model. Nat Microbiol. 2018;3:662–669.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kortright KE, Chan BK, Koff JL, et al. Phage therapy: a renewed approach to combat antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Cell host Microbe. 2019;25:219–232.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roshan N, Riley TV, Knight DR, et al. Effect of natural products on the production and activity of Clostridium difficile toxins in vitro. Sci Rep. 2018;8:15735.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang J, Wang J, Yang K, et al. Antibacterial activity of selenium-enriched lactic acid bacteria against common food-borne pathogens in vitro. J Dairy Sci. 2018;101:1930–1942.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tam J, Hamza T, Ma B, et al. Host-targeted niclosamide inhibits C. difficile virulence and prevents disease in mice without disrupting the gut microbiota. Nat Commun. 2018;9:5233.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lessa FC, Mu Y, Bamberg WM, et al. Burden of Clostridium difficile infection in the United States. New Eng J Med. 2015;372:825–834.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dubberke ER, Olsen MA. Burden of Clostridium difficile on the healthcare system. Clin Infect Dis Off Publ Infect Dis Soc Am. 2012;55(Suppl 2):S88.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu XS, Li WG, Zhang WZ, et al. Molecular characterization of Clostridium difficile isolates in China from 2010 to 2015. Front Microbiol. 2018;9:845.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hung YP, Tsai PJ, Lee YT, et al. Nationwide surveillance of ribotypes and antimicrobial susceptibilities of toxigenic Clostridium difficile isolates with an emphasis on reduced doxycycline and tigecycline susceptibilities among ribotype 078 lineage isolates in Taiwan. IDR. 2018;11:1197–1203.
   Google Scholar
• Krutova M, Zouharova M, Matejkova J, et al. The emergence of Clostridium difficile PCR ribotype 078 in piglets in the Czech Republic clusters with Clostridium difficile PCR ribotype 078 isolates from Germany, Japan and Taiwan. Int J Med Microbiol. 2018;308:770–775.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isturiz RE, Carbon C. Antibiotic use in developing countries. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2000;21:394–397.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alpuche Aranda CM, Romano Mazzotti L. Teaching appropriate antibiotic use in developing countries. In: Sosa AJ, Byarugaba DK, Amabile Cuevas CF, et al., editors. Antimicrobial resistance in developing countries. New York (NY): Springer; 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Alanis AJ. Resistance to antibiotics: are we in the post-antibiotic era? Arch Med Res. 2005;36:697–705.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Candel-Pérez C, Ros-Berruezo G, Martínez-Graciá C. A review of Clostridioides [Clostridium] difficile occurrence through the food chain. Food Microbiol. 2019;77:118–129.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tkalec V, Janezic S, Skok B, et al. High Clostridium difficile contamination rates of domestic and imported potatoes compared to some other vegetables in Slovenia. Food Microbiol. 2019;78:194–200.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hafiz S, Oakley CL. Clostridium difficile: isolation and characteristics. J Med Microbiol. 1976;9:129–136.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rousseau C, Levenez F, Fouqueray C, et al. Clostridium difficile colonization in early infancy is accompanied by changes in intestinal microbiota composition. J Clin Microbiol. 2011;49:858–865.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jangi S, Lamont JT. Asymptomatic colonization by Clostridium difficile in infants: implications for disease in later life. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2010;51:2–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDonald LC, Gerding DN, Johnson S, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for Clostridium difficile infection in adults and children: 2017 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA). Clin Infect Dis. 2018;66:e1–e48.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khanna S, Pardi DS, Aronson SL, et al. The epidemiology of community-acquired Clostridium difficile infection: a population-based study. Am J Gastroenterol. 2012;107:89–95.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliott B, Androga GO, Knight DR, et al. Clostridium difficile infection: evolution, phylogeny and molecular epidemiology. Infect Genet Evol. 2017;49:1–11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandhu BK, McBride SM. Clostridioides difficile. Trends Microbiol. 2018;26:1049–1050.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Voth DE, Ballard JD. Clostridium difficile toxins: mechanism of action and role in disease. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2005;18:247–263.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larson HE, Price AB, Honour P, et al. Clostridium difficile and the aetiology of pseudomembranous colitis. Lancet. 1978;1:1063–1066.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• George RH, Symonds JM, Dimock F, et al. Identification of Clostridium difficile as a cause of pseudomembranous colitis. Br Med J. 1978;1:695–695.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartlett JG, Moon N, Chang TW, et al. Role of Clostridium difficile in antibiotic-associated pseudomembranous colitis. Gastroenterology. 1978;75:778–782.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McFarland LV. Meta-analysis of probiotics for the prevention of antibiotic associated diarrhea and the treatment of Clostridium difficile disease. Am J Gastroenterol. 2006;101:812–822.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartlett JG. Clinical practice. Antibiotic-associated diarrhea. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:334–339.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang Y, Yang Z, Gao S, et al. The role of purified Clostridium difficile glucosylating toxins in disease pathogenesis utilizing a murine cecum injection model. Anaerobe. 2017;48:249.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuehne SA, Cartman ST, Heap JT, et al. The role of toxin A and toxin B in Clostridium difficile infection. Gut Microbes. 2010;467:711–713.
   Google Scholar
• Alcalá Hernández L, Reigadas Ramírez E, Bouza Santiago E. Clostridium difficile infection. Med Clín (Barc). 2017;148:456–463.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gil F, Lagos-Moraga S, Calderon-Romero P, et al. Updates on Clostridium difficile spore biology. Anaerobe. 2017;45:3–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abt MC, McKenney PT, Pamer EG. Clostridium difficile colitis: pathogenesis and host defence. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2016;14:609–620.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Battaglioli EJ, Hale VL, Chen J, et al. Clostridioides difficile uses amino acids associated with gut microbial dysbiosis in a subset of patients with diarrhea. Sci Transl Med. 2018;10:eaam7019.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palleja A, Mikkelsen KH, Forslund SK, et al. Recovery of gut microbiota of healthy adults following antibiotic exposure. Nat Microbiol. 2018;3:1255–1265.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagy E. What do we know about the diagnostics, treatment and epidemiology of Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile infection in Europe? J Infect Chemother. 2018;24:164–170.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beinortas T, Burr NE, Wilcox MH, et al. Comparative efficacy of treatments for Clostridium difficile infection: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2018;18:1035.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vehreschild M, Taori S, Goldenberg SD, et al. Fidaxomicin for the treatment of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) in at-risk patients with inflammatory bowel disease, fulminant CDI, renal impairment or hepatic impairment: a retrospective study of routine clinical use (ANEMONE). Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2018;37:2097–2106.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feher C, Munez Rubio E, Merino Amador P, et al. The efficacy of fidaxomicin in the treatment of Clostridium difficile infection in a real-world clinical setting: a Spanish multi-centre retrospective cohort. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2017;36:295–303.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maaß S, Otto A, Albrecht D, et al. Proteomic signatures of Clostridium difficile stressed with metronidazole, vancomycin, or fidaxomicin. Cells. 2018;7:213.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perkins HR. Specificity of combination between mucopeptide precursors and vancomycin or ristocetin. Biochem J. 1969;111:195–205.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Artsimovitch I, Seddon J, Sears P. Fidaxomicin is an inhibitor of the initiation of bacterial RNA synthesis. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55:S127–S131.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guh AY, Kutty PK. Clostridioides difficile infection. Ann Intern Med. 2018;169:ITC49–ITC64.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balsells E, Shi T, Leese C, et al. Global burden of Clostridium difficile infections: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Glob Health. 2019;9:010407.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ford DC, Schroeder MC, Ince D, et al. Cost-effectiveness analysis of initial treatment strategies for mild-to-moderate Clostridium difficile infection in hospitalized patients. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2018;75:1110–1121.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larcombe S, Hutton ML, Lyras D. Involvement of bacteria other than Clostridium difficile in antibiotic-associated diarrhoea. Trends Microbiol. 2016;24:463–476.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ngernsombat C, Sreesai S, Harnvoravongchai P, et al. CD2068 potentially mediates multidrug efflux in Clostridium difficile. Sci Rep. 2017;7:9982.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carman RJ, Daskalovitz HM, Lyerly MW, et al. Multidrug resistant Clostridium difficile ribotype 027 in southwestern Virginia, 2007 to 2013. Anaerobe. 2018;52:16–21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peng Z, Liu S, Meng X, et al. Genome characterization of a novel binary toxin-positive strain of Clostridium difficile and comparison with the epidemic 027 and 078 strains. Gut Pathog. 2017;9:42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuriyama A, Jackson JL, Doi A, et al. Metronidazole-induced central nervous system toxicity: a systematic review. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2011;34:241.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korpela K, Salonen A, Virta LJ, et al. Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG intake modifies preschool children's intestinal microbiota, alleviates penicillin-associated changes, and reduces antibiotic use. PLoS One. 2016;11:e0154012.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szajewska H, Canani RB, Guarino A, et al. Probiotics for the prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhea in children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2016;62:495–506.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spinler JK, Ross CL, Savidge TC. Probiotics as adjunctive therapy for preventing Clostridium difficile infection – what are we waiting for? Anaerobe. 2016;41:51–57.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Libertucci J, Young VB. The role of the microbiota in infectious diseases. Nat Microbiol. 2019;4:35–45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kang JD, Myers CJ, Harris SC, et al. Bile acid 7α-dehydroxylating gut bacteria secrete antibiotics that inhibit Clostridium difficile: role of secondary bile acids. Cell Chem Biol. 2019;26(1):27–34. e4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Passmore IJ, Letertre MPM, Preston MD, et al. Para-cresol production by Clostridium difficile affects microbial diversity and membrane integrity of Gram-negative bacteria. PLoS Pathog. 2018;14:e1007191.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagai M, Obata Y, Takahashi D, et al. Fine-tuning of the mucosal barrier and metabolic systems using the diet-microbial metabolite axis. Int Immunopharmacol. 2016;37:79–86.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rizzetto L, Fava F, Tuohy KM, et al. Connecting the immune system, systemic chronic inflammation and the gut microbiome: the role of sex. J Autoimmun. 2018;92:12–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Litvak Y, Byndloss MX, Bäumler AJ. Colonocyte metabolism shapes the gut microbiota. Science. 2018;362:eaat9076.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heianza Y, Sun D, Li X, et al. Gut microbiota metabolites, amino acid metabolites and improvements in insulin sensitivity and glucose metabolism: the POUNDS Lost trial. Gut. 2019;68:263–270.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zarandi ER, Mansouri S, Nakhaee N, et al. Toxin production of Clostridium difficile in sub-MIC of vancomycin and clindamycin alone and in combination with ceftazidime. Microb Pathog. 2017;107:249–253.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aldape MJ, Packham AE, Nute DW, et al. Effects of ciprofloxacin on the expression and production of exotoxins by Clostridium difficile. J Med Microbiol. 2013;62:741–747.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aldape MJ, Heeney DD, Bryant AE, et al. Tigecycline suppresses toxin A and B production and sporulation in Clostridium difficile. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2015;70:153–159.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang J, Yang H. Effect of Bifidobacterium breve in combination with different antibiotics on Clostridium difficile. Front Microbiol. 2018;9:2953.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hota SS, Poutanen SM. Fecal microbiota transplantation for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. CMAJ. 2018;190:E746.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lai CY, Sung J, Cheng F, et al. Systematic review with meta-analysis: review of donor features, procedures and outcomes in 168 clinical studies of faecal microbiota transplantation. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2019;49:354.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• York A. FMT in the clinic. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2019;17:127.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chen B, Avinashi V, Dobson S. Fecal microbiota transplantation for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection in children. J Infect. 2017;74:S120–S127.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li X, Gao X, Hu H, et al. Clinical efficacy and microbiome changes following fecal microbiota transplantation in children with recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Front Microbiol. 2018;9:2622.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hota SS, Poutanen SM. Is a single fecal microbiota transplant a promising treatment for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection? Open Forum Infect Dis. 2018;5:ofy045.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hota SS, Sales V, Tomlinson G, et al. Oral vancomycin followed by fecal transplantation versus tapering oral vancomycin treatment for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection: an open-label, randomized controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;64:265–271.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krensky C, Poutanen SM, Hota SS. Diarrhea after fecal microbiota transplantation for recurrent Clostridioides difficile infection. CMAJ. 2019;191:E559–E561.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen-Vercoe E, Reid G, Viner N, et al. A Canadian Working Group report on fecal microbial therapy: microbial ecosystems therapeutics. Canadian J Gastroenterol. 2012;26:457–462.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lapointe-Shaw L, Tran KL, Coyte PC, et al. Cost-effectiveness analysis of six strategies to treat recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. PLoS One. 2016;11:e0149521.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Staley C, Kaiser T, Vaughn BP, et al. Predicting recurrence of Clostridium difficile infection following encapsulated fecal microbiota transplantation. Microbiome. 2018;6:166.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weingarden AR, Chen C, Bobr A, et al. Microbiota transplantation restores normal fecal bile acid composition in recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. AJP: Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2013;306:G310–G319.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Savidge T, Sorg JA. Role of bile in infectious disease: the gall of 7α-dehydroxylating gut bacteria. Cell Chem Biol. 2019;26:1–3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDonald JAK, Mullish BH, Pechlivanis A, et al. Inhibiting growth of Clostridioides difficile by restoring valerate, produced by the intestinal microbiota. Gastroenterology. 2018;155:1495–1507 e15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kellingray L, Gall GL, Defernez M, et al. Microbial taxonomic and metabolic alterations during faecal microbiota transplantation to treat Clostridium difficile infection. J Infect. 2018;77:107–118.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoon S, Yu J, McDowell A, et al. Bile salt hydrolase-mediated inhibitory effect of Bacteroides ovatus on growth of Clostridium difficile. J Microbiol. 2017;55:892–899.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zuo T, Wong SH, Cheung CP, et al. Gut fungal dysbiosis correlates with reduced efficacy of fecal microbiota transplantation in Clostridium difficile infection. Nat Commun. 2018;9:3663.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Vrese M, Schrezenmeir J. Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Synbiotics. In: Stahl U, Donalies UE, Nevoigt E, editors. Food Biotechnology. Advances in Biochemical Engineering/Biotechnology. Vol. 111; Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer; 2008. p. 1–66.
   Google Scholar
• Prasanna PHP, Grandison AS, Charalampopoulos D. Bifidobacteria in milk products: an overview of physiological and biochemical properties, exopolysaccharide production, selection criteria of milk products and health benefits. Food Res Int. 2014;55:247–262.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pringsulaka O, Rueangyotchanthana K, Suwannasai N, et al. In vitro screening of lactic acid bacteria for multi-strain probiotics. Livestock Sci. 2015;174:66–73.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ouattara HD, Ouattara HG, Droux M, et al. Lactic acid bacteria involved in cocoa beans fermentation from Ivory Coast: species diversity and citrate lyase production. Int J Food Microbiol. 2017;256:11–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Melo Pereira GV, Coelho BO, Magalhaes Junior AI, et al. How to select a probiotic? A review and update of methods and criteria. Biotechnol Adv. 2018;36:2060–2076.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meile L, Le BG, Thierry A. Safety assessment of dairy microorganisms: Propionibacterium and Bifidobacterium. Int J Food Microbiol. 2008;126:316–320.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mattia A, Merker R. Regulation of probiotic substances as ingredients in foods: premarket approval or “generally recognized as safe” notification. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;46(Suppl 2):141–154.
   Google Scholar
• Robles AV, Guarner F. Linking the gut microbiota to human health. Br J Nutr. 2013;109:S21–S26.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ambalam P, Kondepudi KK, Balusupati P, et al. Prebiotic preferences of human lactobacilli strains in co-culture with Bifidobacteria and antimicrobial activity against Clostridium difficile. J Appl Microbiol. 2015;119:1672–1682.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen SJ, Wareham K, Wang D, et al. Lactobacilli and bifidobacteria in the prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea and Clostridium difficile diarrhoea in older inpatients (PLACIDE): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre trial. Lancet. 2013;382:1249–1257.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldenberg JZ, Mertz D, Johnston BC. Probiotics to prevent Clostridium difficile infection in patients receiving antibiotics. JAMA. 2018;320:499.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suwal S, Wu Q, Liu W, et al. The probiotic effectiveness in preventing experimental colitis is correlated with host gut microbiota. Front Microbiol. 2018;9:2675.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wei Y, Yang F, Wu Q, et al. Protective effects of bifidobacterial strains against toxigenic Clostridium difficile. Front Microbiol. 2018;9:888.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dudzicz S, Kujawa-Szewieczek A, Kwiecien K, et al. Lactobacillus plantarum 299v reduces the incidence of Clostridium difficile infection in nephrology and transplantation ward-results of one year extended study. Nutrients. 2018;10:1574.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu Q, Gu S, Chen Y, et al. Protective effect of Pediococcus pentosaceus LI05 against Clostridium difficile infection in a mouse model. Front Microbiol. 2018;9:2396.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korpela K, Salonen A, Vepsalainen O, et al. Probiotic supplementation restores normal microbiota composition and function in antibiotic-treated and in caesarean-born infants. Microbiome. 2018;6:182.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Golic N, Veljovic K, Popovic N, et al. In vitro and in vivo antagonistic activity of new probiotic culture against Clostridium difficile and Clostridium perfringens. BMC Microbiol. 2017;17:108.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mansour NM, Elkhatib WF, Aboshanab KM, et al. Inhibition of Clostridium difficile in mice using a mixture of potential probiotic strains Enterococcus faecalis NM815, E. faecalis NM915, and E. faecium NM1015: novel candidates to control C. difficile infection (CDI). Probiotics Antimicrob Proteins. 2018;10:511–522.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fredua-Agyeman M, Stapleton P, Basit AW, et al. In vitro inhibition of Clostridium difficile by commercial probiotics: a microcalorimetric study. Int J Pharm. 2017;517:96–103.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barker A, Duster M, Valentine S, et al. Probiotics for Clostridium difficile infection in adults (PICO): study protocol for a double-blind, randomized controlled trial. Contemp Clin Trials. 2015;44:26–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans M, Salewski RP, Christman MC, et al. Effectiveness of Lactobacillus helveticus and Lactobacillus rhamnosus for the management of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea in healthy adults: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Br J Nutr. 2016;116:94–103.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Douillard FP, Ribbera A, Kant R, et al. Comparative genomic and functional analysis of 100 Lactobacillus rhamnosus strains and their comparison with strain GG. Plos Genet. 2013;9:e1003683.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joanne S. Fiber and prebiotics: mechanisms and health benefits. Nutrients. 2013;5:1417–1435.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ratsep M, Koljalg S, Sepp E, et al. A combination of the probiotic and prebiotic product can prevent the germination of Clostridium difficile spores and infection. Anaerobe. 2017;47:94–103.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plaza-Diaz J, Ruiz-Ojeda FJ, Gil-Campos M, et al. Mechanisms of action of probiotics. Adv Nutr. 2019;10:S49–S66.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bazanella M, Maier TV, Clavel T, et al. Randomized controlled trial on the impact of early-life intervention with bifidobacteria on the healthy infant fecal microbiota and metabolome. Am J Clin Nutr. 2017;106:1274–1286.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bermudez-Brito M, Plaza DJ, Munoz-Quezada S, et al. Probiotic mechanisms of action. Ann Nutr Metab. 2012;61:160–174.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mokoena MP. Lactic acid bacteria and their bacteriocins: classification, biosynthesis and applications against uropathogens: a mini-review. Molecules. 2017;22:1255.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferrario C, Taverniti V, Milani C, et al. Modulation of fecal clostridiales bacteria and butyrate by probiotic intervention with Lactobacillus paracasei DG varies among healthy adults. J Nutr. 2014;144:1787–1796.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buss C, Valle-Tovo C, Miozzo S, et al. Probiotics and synbiotics may improve liver aminotransferases levels in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease patients. Ann Hepatol. 2014;13:482–488.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pavlovic N, Stankov K, Mikov M. Probiotics-interactions with bile acids and impact on cholesterol metabolism. Appl Biochem Biotechnol. 2012;168:1880–1895.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Servin AL, Coconnier MH. Adhesion of probiotic strains to the intestinal mucosa and interaction with pathogens. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2003;17:741–754.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christensen HR, Frøkiaer H, Pestka JJ. Lactobacilli differentially modulate expression of cytokines and maturation surface markers in murine dendritic cells. J Immunol. 2002;168:171–178.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kwon H-K, Lee C-G, So J-S, et al. Generation of regulatory dendritic cells and CD4(+)Foxp3(+) T cells by probiotics administration suppresses immune disorders. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA. 2010;107:2159–2164.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saeidi N, Wong CK, Lo TM, et al. Engineering microbes to sense and eradicate Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a human pathogen. Mol Syst Biol. 2014;7:521.
   Google Scholar
• Hwang IY, Koh E, Wong A, et al. Engineered probiotic Escherichia coli can eliminate and prevent Pseudomonas aeruginosa gut infection in animal models. Nat Commun. 2017;8:15028.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andersen KK, Strokappe NM, Hultberg A, et al. Neutralization of Clostridium difficile toxin B mediated by engineered Lactobacilli that produce single-domain antibodies. Infect Immun. 2016;84:395–406.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Senoh M, Iwaki M, Yamamoto A, et al. Development of vaccine for Clostridium difficile infection using membrane fraction of nontoxigenic Clostridium difficile. Microb Pathog. 2018;123:42–46.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turnbaugh PJ, Ridaura VK, Faith JJ, et al. The effect of diet on the human gut microbiome: a metagenomic analysis in humanized gnotobiotic mice. Sci Transl Med. 2009;1:6ra14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wen L, Ley RE, Volchkov PY, et al. Innate immunity and intestinal microbiota in the development of type 1 diabetes. Nature. 2008;455:1109–1113.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maslowski KM, Vieira AT, Ng A, et al. Regulation of inflammatory responses by gut microbiota and chemoattractant receptor GPR43. Nature. 2009;461:1282–1286.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clarke TB, Davis KM, Lysenko ES, et al. Recognition of peptidoglycan from the microbiota by Nod1 enhances systemic innate immunity. Nat Med. 2010;16:228–231.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abedon ST. Kinetics of phage-mediated biocontrol of bacteria. Foodborne Pathog Dis. 2009;6:807–815.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hua Y, Luo T, Yang Y, et al. Phage therapy as a promising new treatment for lung infection caused by carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii in mice. Front Microbiol. 2018;8:2659.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gogokhia L, Buhrke K, Bell R, et al. Expansion of bacteriophages is linked to aggravated intestinal inflammation and colitis. Cell Host Microbe. 2019;25:285–299.e8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meader E, Mayer MJ, Steverding D, et al. Evaluation of bacteriophage therapy to control Clostridium difficile and toxin production in an in vitro human colon model system. Anaerobe. 2013;22:25–30.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramesh V, Fralick JA, Rolfe RD. Prevention of Clostridium difficile-induced ileocecitis with bacteriophage. Anaerobe. 1999;5:69–78.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mills JP, Rao K, Young VB. Probiotics for prevention of Clostridium difficile infection. Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 2018;34:3–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hargreaves KR, Clokie MR. Clostridium difficile phages: still difficult? Front Microbiol. 2014;5:184.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Imanishi KI. Aloctin A, an active substance of Aloe arborescens Miller as an immunomodulator. Phytother Res. 1993;7:S20–S22.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang HT, Chen JW, Rathod J, et al. Lauric acid is an inhibitor of Clostridium difficile growth in vitro and reduces inflammation in a mouse infection model. Front Microbiol. 2017;8:2635.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piotrowski M, Karpiński P, Pituch H, et al. Antimicrobial effects of manuka honey on in vitro biofilm formation by Clostridium difficile. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2017;36:1661.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aljarallah KM. Inhibition of Clostridium difficile by natural herbal extracts. J Taibah Univ Med Sci. 2016;11:427–431.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewinski N, Colvin V, Drezek R. Cytotoxicity of nanoparticles. Small. 2008;4:26–49.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim JS, Kuk E, Yu KN, et al. Antimicrobial effects of silver nanoparticles. Nanomedicine. 2007;3:95–101.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang Q, Jaramillo AM, Pavon JJ, et al. Red selenium nanoparticles and gray selenium nanorods as antibacterial coatings for PEEK medical devices. J Biomed Mater Res. 2016;104:1352–1358.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee WT, Wu YN, Chen YH, et al. Octahedron iron oxide nanocrystals prohibited Clostridium difficile spore germination and attenuated local and systemic inflammation. Sci Rep. 2017;7:8124.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huh H, Wong S, St Jean J, et al. Bacteriophage interactions with mammalian tissue: therapeutic applications. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2019.01.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar