Clinical utility of procalcitonin and its association with pathogenic microorganisms

References

• Aloisio E, Dolci A, Panteghini M. Procalcitonin: between evidence and critical issues. Clin Chim Acta. 2019;496:7–12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Le Moullec JM, Jullienne A, Chenais J, et al. The complete sequence of human preprocalcitonin. FEBS Lett. 1984;167(1):93–97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cleland DA, Eranki AP. Procalcitonin. In: StatPearls [internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2021 [cited 2021 Aug 11]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK539794
   Google Scholar
• Downes KJ, Fitzgerald JC, Weiss SL. Utility of procalcitonin as a biomarker for sepsis in children. J Clin Microbiol. 2020;58(7):e01851–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ponti G, Maccaferri M, Ruini C, et al. Biomarkers associated with COVID-19 disease progression. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci. 2020;57(6):389–399.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gai L, Tong Y, Yan BQ. Research on the diagnostic effect of PCT level in serum on patients with sepsis due to different pathogenic causes. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2018;22:4238–4242.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Müller B, White JC, Nylén ES, et al. Ubiquitous expression of the calcitonin-i gene in multiple tissues in response to sepsis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86(1):396–404.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rau B, Steinbach G, Gansauge F, et al. The potential role of procalcitonin and interleukin 8 in the prediction of infected necrosis in acute pancreatitis. Gut. 1997;41(6):832–840.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oczenski W, Fitzgerald RD, Schwarz S. Procalcitonin: a new parameter for the diagnosis of bacterial infection in the peri-operative period. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 1998;15(2):202–209.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim YJ, Kang SW, Lee JH, et al. Marked elevation of procalcitonin level can lead to a misdiagnosis of anaphylactic shock as septic shock. Int J Infect Dis. 2015;37:93–94.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rhee C. Using Procalcitonin to guide antibiotic therapy. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2016;4:ofw249.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Assicot M, Gendrel D, Carsin H, et al. High serum procalcitonin concentrations in patients with sepsis and infection. Lancet. 1993;341(8844):515–518.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shokripour M, Omidifar N, Salami K, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of immunologic biomarkers for accurate diagnosis of bloodstream infection in patients with malignancy: Procalcitonin in comparison with C-reactive protein. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol. 2020;2020:8362109.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El Haddad H, Chaftari AM, Hachem R, et al. Biomarkers of sepsis and bloodstream infections: the role of procalcitonin and proadrenomedullin with emphasis in patients with cancer. Clin Infect Dis. 2018;67(6):971–977.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watkin RW, Harper LV, Vernallis AB, et al. Pro-inflammatory cytokines IL6, TNF-alpha, IL1beta, procalcitonin, lipopolysaccharide binding protein and C-reactive protein in infective endocarditis. J Infect. 2007;55(3):220–225.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin JC, Chen ZH, Chen XD. Elevated serum procalcitonin predicts Gram-negative bloodstream infections in patients with burns. Burns. 2020;46(1):182–189.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakae H, Inaba H, Endo S. Usefulness of procalcitonin in Pseudomonas burn wound sepsis model. Tohoku J Exp Med. 1999;188(3):271–273.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becker KL, Nylén ES, White JC, et al. Clinical review 167: Procalcitonin and the calcitonin gene family of peptides in inflammation, infection, and sepsis: a journey from calcitonin back to its precursors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89(4):1512–1525.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lippi G, Sanchis-Gomar F. Procalcitonin in inflammatory bowel disease: drawbacks and opportunities. World J Gastroenterol. 2017;23(47):8283–8290.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schuetz P, Albrich W, Mueller B. Procalcitonin for diagnosis of infection and guide to antibiotic decisions: past, present and future. BMC Med. 2011;9:107. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-9-107
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simon L, Gauvin F, Amre DK, et al. Serum procalcitonin and C-reactive protein levels as markers of bacterial infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39(2):206–217.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu JY, Lee SH, Shen CJ, et al. Use of serum procalcitonin to detect bacterial infection in patients with autoimmune diseases: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. Arthritis Rheum. 2012;64(9):3034–3042.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Liu HH, Guo JB, Geng Y, et al. Procalcitonin: present and future. Ir J Med Sci. 2015;184(3):597–605.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang JH, Gao DP, Zou PF. Comparison of serum PCT and CRP levels in patients infected by different pathogenic microorganisms: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2018;51(7):e6783.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shomali W, Hachem R, Chaftari AM, et al. Can procalcitonin differentiate Staphylococcus aureus from coagulase-negative staphylococci in clustered gram-positive bacteremia? Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2013;76(2):158–161.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tascini C, Aimo A, Arzilli C, et al. Procalcitonin, white blood cell count and C-reactive protein as predictors of S. aureus infection and mortality in infective endocarditis. Int J Cardiol. 2020;301:190–194.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giamarellou H, Giamarellos-Bourboulis EJ, Repoussis P, et al. Potential use of procalcitonin as a diagnostic criterion in febrile neutropenia: experience from a multicentre study. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2004;10(7):628–633.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schuetz P, Mueller B, Trampuz A. Serum procalcitonin for discrimination of blood contamination from bloodstream infection due to coagulase-negative staphylococci. Infection. 2007;35(5):352–355.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rast AC, Knobel D, Faessler L, et al. Use of procalcitonin, C-reactive protein and white blood cell count to distinguish between lower limb erysipelas and deep vein thrombosis in the emergency department: a prospective observational study. J Dermatol. 2015;42(8):778–785.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charles PE, Ladoire S, Aho S, et al. Serum procalcitonin elevation in critically ill patients at the onset of bacteremia caused by either Gram negative or Gram positive bacteria. BMC Infect Dis. 2008;8:38.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leli C, Ferranti M, Moretti A, et al. Procalcitonin levels in gram-positive, gram-negative, and fungal bloodstream infections. Dis Markers. 2015;2015:1–8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fu Y, Chen J, Cai B, et al. The use of PCT, CRP, IL-6 and SAA in critically ill patients for an early distinction between candidemia and Gram positive/negative bacteremia. J Infect. 2012;64(4):438–440.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li S, Rong H, Guo Q, et al. Serum procalcitonin levels distinguish Gram-negative bacterial sepsis from Gram-positive bacterial and fungal sepsis. J Res Med Sci. 2016;21(1):39.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Luo X, Chen S, Zhang J, et al. Procalcitonin as a marker of Gram-negative bloodstream infections in hematological patients with febrile neutropenia. Leuk Lymphoma. 2019;60(10):2441–2448.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yan ST, Sun LC, Jia HB, et al. Procalcitonin levels in bloodstream infections caused by different sources and species of bacteria. Am J Emerg Med. 2017;35(4):579–583.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leng Y, Chen C, Zhang Y, et al. Ability of serum procalcitonin to distinguish focus of infection and pathogen types in patients with bloodstream infection. Ann Transl Med. 2019;7(7):135–135.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cabral L, Afreixo V, Meireles R, et al. Evaluation of procalcitonin accuracy for the distinction between Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacterial sepsis in burn Patients. J Burn Care Res. 2019;40(1):112–119.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pieralli F, Corbo L, Torrigiani A, et al. Usefulness of procalcitonin in differentiating Candida and bacterial blood stream infections in critically ill septic patients outside the intensive care unit. Intern Emerg Med. 2017;12(5):629–635.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martini A, Gottin L, Menestrina N, et al. Procalcitonin levels in surgical patients at risk of candidemia. J Infect. 2010;60(6):425–430.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charles PE, Dalle F, Aho S, et al. Serum procalcitonin measurement contribution to the early diagnosis of candidemia in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med. 2006;32(10):1577–1583.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cortegiani A, Russotto V, Montalto F, et al. Procalcitonin as a marker of Candida species detection by blood culture and polymerase chain reaction in septic patients. BMC Anesthesiol. 2014;14:9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodríguez AH, Avilés-Jurado FX, Díaz E, et al. Procalcitonin (PCT) levels for ruling-out bacterial coinfection in ICU patients with influenza: a CHAID decision-tree analysis. J Infect. 2016;72:143–151.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pfister R, Kochanek M, Leygeber T, et al. Procalcitonin for diagnosis of bacterial pneumonia in critically ill patients during 2009 H1N1 influenza pandemic: a prospective cohort study, systematic review and individual patient data Meta-analysis. Crit Care. 2014;18(2):R44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahn S, Kim WY, Kim SH, et al. Role of procalcitonin and C-reactive protein in differentiation of mixed bacterial infection from 2009 H1N1 viral pneumonia. Influenza Other Respir Viruses. 2011;5(6):398–403.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cuquemelle E, Soulis F, Villers D, et al. Can procalcitonin help identify associated bacterial infection in patients with severe influenza pneumonia? A multicentre study. Intensive Care Med. 2011;37(5):796–800.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Do Q, Dao TM, Nguyen TNT, et al. Procalcitonin identifies bacterial coinfections in vietnamese children with severe respiratory syncytial virus pneumonia. Biomed Res Int. 2020;2020:7915158.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang M, Gao H, Chen J, et al. Bacterial coinfection is associated with severity of avian influenza A (H7N9), and procalcitonin is a useful marker for early diagnosis. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2016;84(2):165–169.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laham JL, Breheny PJ, Gardner BM, et al. Procalcitonin to predict bacterial coinfection in infants with acute bronchiolitis: a preliminary analysis. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2014;30(1):11–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li F, Kong S, Xie K, et al. High ratio of C-reactive protein/procalcitonin predicts Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection among adults hospitalized with community acquired pneumonia. Scand J Clin Lab Invest. 2021;81(1):65–71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer Sauteur PM, Krautter S, Ambroggio L, et al. Improved diagnostics help to identify clinical features and biomarkers that predict Mycoplasma pneumoniae community-acquired pneumonia in children. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(7):1645–1654.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neeser OL, Vukajlovic T, Felder L, et al. A high C-reactive protein/procalcitonin ratio predicts Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2019;57(10):1638–1646.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee CS, Hwang JH, Lee JM, et al. The clinical usefulness of serum procalcitonin level in patients with scrub typhus. Korean J Intern Med. 2017;32(4):761–763.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiwakata CB, Manegold C, Bönicke L, et al. Procalcitonin as a parameter of disease severity and risk of mortality in patients with Plasmodium falciparum malaria. J Infect Dis. 2001;183(7):1161–1164.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shomali W, Hachem R, Chaftari AM, et al. Can procalcitonin distinguish infectious fever from tumor-related fever in non-neutropenic cancer patients? Cancer. 2012;118(23):5823–5829.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sato A, Kaido T, Iida T, et al. Bundled strategies against infection after liver transplantation: lessons from multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Liver Transpl. 2016;22(4):436–445.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu S, Ma C, Gao X, et al. Group a Streptococcus induces less p65 nuclear translocation and non-classical nuclear factor kappa B activation in macrophages, which possibly leads to a weaker inflammatory response. Int J Infect Dis. 2016;44:50–60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leli C, Ferranti M, Marrano U, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of presepsin (sCD14-ST) and procalcitonin for prediction of bacteraemia and bacterial DNAaemia in patients with suspected sepsis. J Med Microbiol. 2016;65(8):713–719.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sivapalan P, Jensen JU. Procalcitonin in acute infections: from the research laboratory to clinical impact-new perspectives of biomarker use. J Lab Precis Med. 2019;4:36–36.
   Google Scholar
• Prucha M, Bellingan G, Zazula R. Sepsis biomarkers. Clin Chim Acta. 2015;440:97–103.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu CC, Lan HM, Han ST, et al. Comparison of diagnostic accuracy in sepsis between presepsin, procalcitonin, and C-reactive protein: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. Ann Intensive Care. 2017;7:91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tan M, Lu Y, Jiang H, et al. The diagnostic accuracy of procalcitonin and C-reactive protein for sepsis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Cell Biochem. 2019;120(4):5852–5859.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wacker C, Prkno A, Brunkhorst FM, et al. Procalcitonin as a diagnostic marker for sepsis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2013;13(5):426–435.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cong S, Ma T, Di X, et al. Diagnostic value of neutrophil CD64, procalcitonin, and interleukin-6 in sepsis: a meta-analysis. BMC Infect Dis. 2021;21(1):384.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uzzan B, Cohen R, Nicolas P, et al. Procalcitonin as a diagnostic test for sepsis in critically ill adults and after surgery or trauma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med. 2006;34(7):1996–2003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Travaglino F, De Berardinis B, Magrini L, et al. Utility of procalcitonin (PCT) and mid regional pro-adrenomedullin (MR-proADM) in risk stratification of critically ill febrile patients in emergency department (ED). a comparison with APACHE II score. BMC Infect Dis. 2012;12:184.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang DT, Weissfeld LA, Kellum JA, et al. Risk prediction with procalcitonin and clinical rules in community-acquired pneumonia. Ann Emerg Med. 2008;52(1):48–58.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Julián-Jiménez A, Iqbal-Mirza SZ, de Rafael González E, et al. Predicting bacteremia in patients attended for infections in an emergency department: the 5MPB-Toledo model. Emergencias. 2020;32:81–89.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michaelidis CI, Zimmerman RK, Nowalk MP, et al. Cost-effectiveness of procalcitonin-guided antibiotic therapy for outpatient management of acute respiratory tract infections in adults. J Gen Intern Med. 2014;29(4):579–586.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pérez-López A, Irwin A, Rodrigo C, et al. Role of C reactive protein and procalcitonin in the diagnosis of lower respiratory tract infection in children in the outpatient setting. BMJ. 2021;373:n1409.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gómez-Zorrilla S, Morandeira F, Castro MJ, et al. Acute inflammatory response of patients with Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections: a prospective study. Microb Drug Resist. 2017;23(4):523–530.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reyes Mondragón AL, Cantú-Rodríguez OG, Garza-Acosta AC, et al. Performance of serum procalcitonin as a biochemical predictor of death in hematology patients with febrile neutropenia. Blood Cells Mol Dis. 2021;90:102586. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcmd.2021.102586
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becker KL, Snider R, Nylen ES. Procalcitonin assay in systemic inflammation, infection, and sepsis: clinical utility and limitations. Crit Care Med. 2008;36(3):941–952.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hatherill M, Tibby SM, Turner C, et al. Procalcitonin and cytokine levels: relationship to organ failure and mortality in pediatric septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2000;28(7):2591–2594.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vujaklija Brajković A, Košuta I, Tomek D, et al. Utility of procalcitonin in a medical intensive care unit in Croatia. Wien Klin Wochenschr. 2021;133(15–16):832–838.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nobre V, Harbarth S, Graf JD, et al. Use of procalcitonin to shorten antibiotic treatment duration in septic patients: a randomized trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;177(5):498–505.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schuetz P, Wirz Y, Sager R, et al. Procalcitonin to initiate or discontinue antibiotics in acute respiratory tract infections. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;(10):CD007498.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• de Jong E, van Oers JA, Beishuizen A, et al. Efficacy and safety of procalcitonin guidance in reducing the duration of antibiotic treatment in critically ill patients: a randomised, controlled, open-label trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2016;16(7):819–827.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bloos F, Trips E, Nierhaus A, et al. Effect of sodium selenite administration and procalcitonin-guided therapy on mortality in patients with severe sepsis or septic shock: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2016;176(9):1266–1276.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cortegiani A, Misseri G, Ippolito M, et al. Procalcitonin levels in candidemia versus bacteremia: a systematic review. Crit Care. 2019;23(1):190.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stojanovic I, Schneider JE, Wei L, et al. Economic evaluation of procalcitonin-guided antibiotic therapy in acute respiratory infections: a Chinese hospital system perspective. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2017;55(4):561–570.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schuetz P, Balk R, Briel M, et al. Economic evaluation of procalcitonin-guided antibiotic therapy in acute respiratory infections: a US health system perspective. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2015;53(4):583–592.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dandona P, Nix D, Wilson MF, et al. Procalcitonin increase after endotoxin injection in normal subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1994;79:1605–1608.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas-Rüddel DO, Poidinger B, Kott M, et al. Influence of pathogen and focus of infection on procalcitonin values in sepsis patients with bacteremia or candidemia. Crit Care. 2018;22(1):128.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stolz D, Smyrnios N, Eggimann P, et al. Procalcitonin for reduced antibiotic exposure in ventilator-associated pneumonia: a randomised study. Eur Respir J. 2009;34(6):1364–1375.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shehabi Y, Sterba M, Garrett PM, et al. Procalcitonin algorithm in critically ill adults with undifferentiated infection or suspected sepsis: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2014;190(10):1102–1110.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matwiyoff GN, Prahl JD, Miller RJ, et al. Immune regulation of procalcitonin: a biomarker and mediator of infection. Inflamm Res. 2012;61(5):401–409.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gautam S, Cohen AJ, Stahl Y, et al. Severe respiratory viral infection induces procalcitonin in the absence of bacterial pneumonia. Thorax. 2020;75(11):974–981.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abe R, Oda S, Sadahiro T, et al. Gram-negative bacteremia induces greater magnitude of inflammatory response than Gram-positive bacteremia. Crit Care. 2010;14(2):R27.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Menéndez R, Sahuquillo-Arce JM, Reyes S, et al. Cytokine activation patterns and biomarkers are influenced by microorganisms in community-acquired pneumonia. Chest. 2012;141(6):1537–1545.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar S, Ingle H, Prasad DV, et al. Recognition of bacterial infection by innate immune sensors. Crit Rev Microbiol. 2013;39(3):229–246.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gu M, Xu HG. Association of procalcitonin concentrations with pathogenic microorganisms. Clin Chem. 2020;66(10):1353–1356.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feezor RJ, Oberholzer C, Baker HV, et al. Molecular characterization of the acute inflammatory response to infections with gram-negative versus gram-positive bacteria. Infect Immun. 2003;71(10):5803–5813.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gao H, Evans TW, Finney SJ. Bench-to-bedside review: sepsis, severe sepsis and septic shock – does the nature of the infecting organism matter? Crit Care. 2008;12(3):213.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Re F, Strominger JL. Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) and TLR4 differentially activate human dendritic cells. J Biol Chem. 2001;276(40):37692–37699.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tong SY, Davis JS, Eichenberger E, et al. Staphylococcus aureus infections: epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, and management. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2015;28(3):603–661.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeLeo FR, Diep BA, Otto M. Host defense and pathogenesis in Staphylococcus aureus infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2009;23(1):17–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balog A, Ocsovszki I, Mándi Y. Flow cytometric analysis of procalcitonin expression in human monocytes and granulocytes. Immunol Lett. 2002;84(3):199–203.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hui-Heng L, Jun-Sheng W, Jin-Zhou L, et al. LPS induced PCT production via TLR-4/NF-кB passway:it is the difference of G–/G+ bacteremia rats. Cytokine. 2021;137:155317.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spyropoulos V, Chalkias A, Georgiou G, et al. Initial immune response in Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Candida albicans bacteremia. Inflammation. 2020;43(1):179–190.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cuculi F, Toggweiler S, Auer M, et al. Serum procalcitonin has the potential to identify Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2008;27(11):1145–1149.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jereb M, Kotar T, Jurca T, et al. Usefulness of procalcitonin for diagnosis of infective endocarditis. Intern Emerg Med. 2009;4(3):221–226.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cornelissen CG, Frechen DA, Schreiner K, et al. Inflammatory parameters and prediction of prognosis in infective endocarditis. BMC Infect Dis. 2013;13:272.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Argemi X, Hansmann Y, Prola K, et al. Coagulase-negative Staphylococci pathogenomics. Int J Mol Sci. 2019;20(5):1215.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becker K, Heilmann C, Peters G. Coagulase-negative staphylococci. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2014;27(4):870–926.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kordek A. Concentrations of procalcitonin and C-reactive protein, white blood cell count, and the immature-to-total neutrophil ratio in the blood of neonates with nosocomial infections: Gram-negative bacilli vs coagulase-negative staphylococci. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2011;30(3):455–457.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Białecka A, Mak M, Biedroń R, et al. Different pro-inflammatory and immunogenic potentials of Propionibacterium acnes and Staphylococcus epidermidis: implications for chronic inflammatory acne. Arch Immunol Ther Exp. 2005;53(1):79–85.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rewa O, Muscedere J, Reynolds S, et al. Coagulase-negative Staphylococcus, catheter-related, bloodstream infections and their association with acute phase markers of inflammation in the intensive care unit: an observational study. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol. 2012;23(4):204–208.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verboon-Maciolek MA, Thijsen SF, Hemels MA, et al. Inflammatory mediators for the diagnosis and treatment of sepsis in early infancy. Pediatr Res. 2006;59(3):457–461.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiesa C, Pacifico L, Rossi N, et al. Procalcitonin as a marker of nosocomial infections in the neonatal intensive care unit. Intensive Care Med. 2000;26(S2):S175–S177.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Engholm DH, Kilian M, Goodsell DS, et al. A visual review of the human pathogen Streptococcus pneumoniae. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2017;41(6):854–879.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malley R, Henneke P, Morse SC, et al. Recognition of pneumolysin by Toll-like receptor 4 confers resistance to pneumococcal infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2003;100(4):1966–1971.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lopardo G, Basombrío A, Clara L, et al. Neumonía adquirida de la comunidad en adultos. Recomendaciones sobre su atención [Guidelines for management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults]. Medicina. 2015;75:245–257.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedlund J, Hansson LO. Procalcitonin and C-reactive protein levels in community-acquired pneumonia: correlation with etiology and prognosis. Infection. 2000;28(2):68–73.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bellmann-Weiler R, Ausserwinkler M, Kurz K, et al. Clinical potential of C-reactive protein and procalcitonin serum concentrations to guide differential diagnosis and clinical management of pneumococcal and Legionella pneumonia. J Clin Microbiol. 2010;48(5):1915–1917.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGill F, Heyderman RS, Panagiotou S, et al. Acute bacterial meningitis in adults. Lancet. 2016;388(10063):3036–3047.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henry BM, Roy J, Ramakrishnan PK, et al. Procalcitonin as a serum biomarker for differentiation of bacterial meningitis from viral meningitis in children: evidence from a Meta-Analysis. Clin Pediatr. 2016;55(8):749–764.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim J, Kim SE, Park BS, et al. Procalcitonin as a diagnostic and prognostic factor for tuberculosis meningitis. J Clin Neurol. 2016;12(3):332–339.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oberhoffer M, Stonans I, Russwurm S, et al. Procalcitonin expression in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells and its modulation by lipopolysaccharides and sepsis-related cytokines in vitro. J Lab Clin Med. 1999;134(1):49–55.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li M, Yang F, Lu Y, et al. Identification of Enterococcus faecalis in a patient with urinary-tract infection based on metagenomic next-generation sequencing: a case report. BMC Infect Dis. 2020;20(1):467.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Croxen MA, Law RJ, Scholz R, et al. Recent advances in understanding enteric pathogenic Escherichia coli. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2013;26(4):822–880.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linscheid P, Seboek D, Nylen ES, et al. In vitro and in vivo calcitonin I gene expression in parenchymal cells: a novel product of human adipose tissue. Endocrinology. 2003;144(12):5578–5584.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elson G, Dunn-Siegrist I, Daubeuf B, et al. Contribution of toll-like receptors to the innate immune response to Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Blood. 2007;109(4):1574–1583.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ogasawara S, Saito N, Hirano R, et al. Clinical relevance of procalcitonin values in bacteremia. J Infect Chemother. 2020;26(10):1048–1053.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giamarellos-Bourboulis EJ, Plachouras D, Tzivra A, et al. Stimulation of innate immunity by susceptible and multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa: an in vitro and in vivo study. Clin Exp Immunol. 2004;135(2):240–246.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Contou D, d’Ythurbide G, Messika J, et al. Description and predictive factors of infection in patients with chronic kidney disease admitted to the critical care unit. J Infect. 2014;68(2):105–115.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu C, Jiang J, Li Z, et al. Expression pattern of soluble triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-1 in mice with Acinetobacter baumannii colonization and infection in the lung. J Thorac Dis. 2018;10(3):1614–1621.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaki MES, Abed S, Elegezy M, et al. Can triggering receptors expressed on myeloid cells be used for diagnosis of Salmonella typhi infection? Endocr Metab Immune Disord Drug Targets. 2020;20(9):1488–1493.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plato A, Hardison SE, Brown GD. Pattern recognition receptors in antifungal immunity. Semin Immunopathol. 2015;37(2):97–106.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sood BG, Shankaran S, Schelonka RL, et al. Cytokine profiles of preterm neonates with fungal and bacterial sepsis. Pediatr Res. 2012;72(2):212–220.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brodská H, Malíčková K, Adámková V, et al. Significantly higher procalcitonin levels could differentiate Gram-negative sepsis from Gram-positive and fungal sepsis. Clin Exp Med. 2013;13(3):165–170.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lippi G, Plebani M. Procalcitonin in patients with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): a meta-analysis. Clin Chim Acta. 2020;505:190–191.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Han J, Gatheral T, Williams C. Procalcitonin for patient stratification and identification of bacterial co-infection in COVID-19. Clin Med. 2020;20(3):e47.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fan X, Deng H, Sang J, et al. High serum procalcitonin concentrations in patients with hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome caused by hantaan virus. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2018;8:129.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braun N, Marfo Y, Von Gärtner C, et al. CTLA-4 positive T cells in contrast to procalcitonin plasma levels discriminate between severe and uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Ghanaian children. Trop Med Int Health. 2003;8(11):1018–1024.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Righi E, Merelli M, Arzese A, et al. Determination of PCT on admission is a useful tool for the assessment of disease severity in travelers with imported Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Acta Parasitol. 2016;61:412–418.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carannante N, Rossi M, Fraganza F, et al. A high PCT level correlates with disease severity in Plasmodium falciparum malaria in children. New Microbiol. 2017;40(1):72–74.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar