332
Views
227
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Human Kallikrein 2 (hK2) and Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA): Two Closely Related, but Distinct, Kallikreins in the Prostate

, , &
Pages 275-368 | Published online: 29 Sep 2008

REFERENCES

  • Oesterling JE. Prostate-specific antigen: a critical assessment of the most useful tumor marker for adenocarcinoma of the prostate. J Urol 1991; 145: 907–23.
  • Catalona WJ, Smith DS, Ratliff TL, et al. Measurement of prostate-specific antigen in serum as a screening test for prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 1991; 324: 1156–61.
  • Catalona WJ, Richie JP, Ahmann FR, et al. Comparison of digital rectal examination and serum prostate specific antigen in the early detection of prostate cancer: results of a multicenter clinical trial of 6630 men. J Urol 1994; 151: 1283–90.
  • Ellis WJ, Brawer MK. The role of tumor markers in the diagnosis and treatment of prostate cancer. In: Lepor H, Lawson RK eds. Prostate diseases. Pp 276-91. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1993.
  • Killian CS, Yang N, Emrich LJ, et al. Prognostic importance of prostate-specific antigen for monitoring patients with stages B2 to D1 prostate cancer. Cancer Res 1985; 45: 886–91.
  • Lange PH, Ercole CJ, Lightner DJ, et al. The value of serum prostate-specific antigen determinations before and after radical prostatectomy. J Urol 1989; 141: 873–9.
  • Chan DW, Bruzek DJ, Oesterling JE, et al. Prostate-specific antigen as a marker for prostatic cancer: a monoclonal and a polyclonal immunoassay compared. Clin Chem 1987; 33: 1916–20.
  • Chu TM. Prostate-specific antigen. In: Sell S ed. Serological cancer markers. Pp. 99–115. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press, 1992.
  • Robles JM, Morell AR, De Mateos JA, et al. Clinical behavior of prostatic-specific antigen and prostatic acid phosphatase: a comparative study. Int J Biol Markers 1989; 4: 87–94.
  • Rock RC, Chan DW, Bruzek D, et al. Evaluation of a monoclonal immunoradiometric assay for prostate-specific antigen. Clin Chem 1987; 33: 2257–61.
  • Benoit RM, Naslund MJ. The socioeconomic implications of prostate-specific antigen screening. Urol Clin North Am 1997; 24: 451–8.
  • Littrup PJ, Goodman AC. Economic considerations of prostate cancer: The role of detection specificity and biopsy reduction. Cancer Suppl 1995; 75: 1987–93.
  • Littrup PJ, Goodman AC Mettlin C. The benefit and cost of prostate cancer early detection. CA 1993; 43: 134–49.
  • Littrup PJ, Goodman AC. Cost and benefits of prostate cancer screening. In Vivo 1994; 8: 423–8.
  • Littrup PJ, Goodman AC, Mettlin CJ, et al. Cost analyses of prostate cancer screening: frameworks for discussion. J Urol 1994; 152: 1873–7.
  • Littrup PJ, Kane RA Mettlin CJ. Prostate cancer detection: reduction of low risk biopsies. Cancer 1994; 74: 3146–58.
  • Landis SH, Murray T, Bolden S, et al. Cancer Statistics,1998. CA Cancer J Clin 1998; 48: 6–29.
  • Catalona WJ, Smith DS Ornstein DK. Prostate cancer detection in men with serum PSA concentrations of 2.6 to 4.0 ng/ml and benign prostate examination: Enhancement of specificity with free PSA measurements. JAMA 1998; 277: 1452–5.
  • Menon M. Editorial: Predicting biological aggressiveness in prostate cancer — desperately seeking a marker. J Urol 1997; 157: 228–9.
  • Albertsen PC, Nease RF Potosky AL. Assessment of patient preferences among men with prostate cancer. J Urol 1998; 159: 158–63.
  • Grove A. Taking on prostate cancer. Fortune 1996; 133: 54–72.
  • Kupelian PA, Klein EA, Witte JS, et al. Familial prostate cancer: a different disease? J Urol 1997; 158: 2197–201.
  • McNeal JE, Bostwick DG, Kindrachuk RA, et al. Patterns of progression in prostate cancer. Lancet 1986; i: 60–3.
  • Rosen MA. Impact of PSA screening on the natural history of prostate cancer. Urology 1995; 46: 757–68.
  • Carter HB, Pearson JD, Metter J, et al. Longitudinal evaluation of prostate-specific antigen levels in men with and without prostate disease. JAMA 1992; 267: 2215–20.
  • Seaman E, Whang M, Olsson CA, et al. PSA density (PSAD). Role in patient evaluation and management. Urol Clin North Am 1993; 20: 653–63.
  • Benson MC, Olsson CA. Prostate-specific antigen and prostate-specific antigen density. Cancer 1994; 74: 1667–73.
  • Oesterling JE, Jacobsen SJ, Chute CG, et al. Serum prostate-specific antigen in a community-based population of healthy men: Establishment of age-specific reference ranges. JAMA 1993; 270: 860–4.
  • Catalona WJ. Clinical utility of measurements of free and total prostate-specific antigen (PSA): a review. Prostate Suppl 1996; 7: 64–9.
  • Higashihara E, Nutahara K, Kojima M, et al. Significance of free prostate-specific antigen and gamma-seminoprotein in the screening of prostate cancer. Prostate Suppl 1996; 7: 40–7.
  • Partin AW. The free/total prostate-specific antigen test: How should it be used in 1997? Urology Int 1997; 18–9.
  • Carter HB, Partin AW, Luderer AA, et al. Percentage of free prostate-specific antigen in sera predicts aggressiveness of prostate cancer a decade before diagnosis. Urology 1997; 49: 379–84.
  • Arcangeli CG, Humphrey PA, Smith DS. Percentage of free prostate-specific antigen in serum as a predictor of pathological features of prostate cancer. Urology 1998; 51: 558–565.
  • Pannek J, Rittenhouse HG, Chan DW, et al. The use of percent free PSA for staging of men with clinically localized prostate cancer. J Urol 1998; 159: 1238–42.
  • Carbini LA, Scicli GA, Carretero OA. The molecular biology of the kallikrein-kinin system. III. The human kallikrein gene family and kallikrein substrate. J Hypertens 1993; 11: 893–8.
  • Chapdelaine P, Paradis G, Tremblay RR, et al. High level of expression in the prostate of a human glandular kallikrein mRNA related to prostate-specific antigen. FEBS Lett 1988; 236: 205–8.
  • Schedlich LJ, Bennetts BH, Morris BJ. Primary structure of a human glandular kallikrein gene. DNA 1987; 6: 429–37.
  • Young CY, Andrews PE, Montgomery BT, et al. Tissue-specific and hormonal regulation of human prostate-specific glandular kallikrein. Biochemistry 1992; 31: 818–24.
  • Clements J, Mukhtar A. Glandular kallikreins and prostate-specific antigen are expressed in the human endometrium. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994; 78: 1536–9.
  • Riegman PH, Vlietstra RJ, Suurmeijer L, et al. Characterization of the human kallikrein locus. Genomics 1992; 14: 6–11.
  • Henttu P, Vihko P. Prostate-specific antigen and human glandular kallikrein: two kallikreins of the human prostate. Ann Med 1994; 26: 157–64.
  • Young CYF, Andrews PE Tindall DJ. Expression and androgenic regulation of human prostate-specific kallikreins. J Androl 1995; 16: 97–9.
  • Darson MF, Pacelli A, Roche PC, et al. Human glandular kallikrein 2 (hK2) expression in prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia and adenocarcinoma: a novel prostate cancer marker. Urology 1997; 49: 857–62.
  • Deperthes D, Chapdelaine P, Tremblay RR, et al. Isolation of prostatic kallikrein hK2, also known as hGK-1, in human seminal plasma. Biochim Biophys Acta 1995; 1245: 311–6.
  • Deperthes D, Frenette G, Brillard-Bourdet M, et al. Potential involvement of kallikrein hK2 in the hydrolysis of the human seminal vesicle proteins after ejaculation. J Androl 1996; 17: 659–65.
  • Grauer LS, Charlesworth MC, Saedi MS, et al. Identification of human glandular kallikrein hK2 from LNCaP cells. J Androl 1996; 17: 353–9.
  • Dube JY, Tremblay RR. Biochemistry and potential roles of prostatic kallikrein hK2. Mol Urol 1997; 1: 279–85.
  • Klee G, Griffin B, Young C, et al. 1995; A competitive chemiluminescent assay for a PSA homologue-human glandular kallikrein (hK2). Clin Chem 1995 41: S220(abstract).
  • Charlesworth MC, Young CYF, Klee GG, et al. Detection of a prostate-specific protein, human glandular kallikrein (hK2), in sera of patients with elevated prostate-specific antigen levels. Urology 1997; 49: 487–93.
  • Finlay JA, Evans C, Day JR, et al. Development of monoclonal antibodies specific for human glandular kallikrein (hK2): Development of a dual antibody immunoassay for hK2 with negligible prostate-specific antigen cross-reactivity. Urology 1998; 51: 804–809.
  • Rittenhouse HG, Tindall DJ, Klee GG, et al. Characterization and evaluation of hK2: a potential prostate cancer marker, closely related to PSA. In: Murphy GP, Khoury S eds. Proceedings of the 1st International Consultation on Prostate Cancer. Pp 133-40. Monaco: Scientific Communication International Ltd. 1997.
  • Lilja H. A kallikrein-like protease in prostatic fluid cleaves the predominant seminal vesicle protein. J Clin Invest 1985; 76: 1899–903.
  • Watt KW, Lee PJ, Timkulu T, et al. Human prostate-specific antigen: structural and functional similarity with serine proteases. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1986; 83: 3166–70.
  • Berg T, Bradshaw RA, Carretero OA, et al. A common nomenclature for members of the tissue (glandular) kallikrein gene families. Agents Actions Suppl 1996; 38: 19–25.
  • Lilja H. Structure, function, and regulation of the enzyme activity of prostate-specific antigen. World J Urol 1993; 11: 188–91.
  • Ban Y, Wang MC, Watt KW, et al. The proteolytic activity of human prostate-specific antigen. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1984; 123: 482–8.
  • Armbruster DA. Prostate-specific antigen: Biochemistry, analytical methods, and clinical application. Clin Chem 1993; 39: 181–95.
  • Dube JY. Prostatic kallikreins: biochemistry and physiology. Comp Biochem Physiol (C) 1994; 107: 13–20.
  • Dube JY. Tissue kallikreins and prostatic diseases in man: new questions. Biochem Cell Biol 1992; 70: 177–8.
  • Malm J, Lilja H. Biochemistry of prostate-specific antigen, PSA. Scand J Clin Lab Invest Suppl 1995; 221: 15–22.
  • Clements JA. The human kallikrein gene family: a diversity of expression and function. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1994; 99: C1–6.
  • Long RJ, Roberts KP, Wilson MJ, et al. Prostate cancer: a clinical and basic science review. J Androl 1997; 18: 15–20.
  • Marinovic V, Cuperlovic M Hajdukovic-Dragojlovic L. Prostate-specific antigen: biochemical characteristics, biological functions and diagnostic potential in prostate cancer screening. Yugoslav Med Biochem 1997; 16: 129–36.
  • McCormack RT, Rittenhouse HG, Finlay JA, et al. Molecular forms of prostate-specific antigen and the human kallikrein gene family: a new era. Urology 1995; 45: 729–44.
  • Sikes RA. Prostate-specific antigen. Clin Biochem Rev 1996; 17: 50–68.
  • Bhoola KD, Figueroa CD Worthy K. Bioregulation of kinins: kallikreins, kininogens, and kininases. Pharmacol Rev 1992; 44: 1–80.
  • Partin AW, Oesterling JE. The clinical usefulness of prostate-specific antigen: Update 1994. J Urol 1994; 152: 1358–68.
  • Brawer MK. Prostate-specific antigen: A review. Acta Oncol 1991; 30: 161–8.
  • Gittes RF. Carcinoma of the prostate. N Engl J Med 1991; 324: 236–43.
  • Chu TM. Prostate cancer-associated markers. In: Herberman RB, Mercer DW eds. Immunodiagnosis of Cancer. Immunology Ser. Pp. 339–56. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1990.
  • Woodrum DL, Brawer MK, Partin AW, et al. Interpretation of free prostate-specific antigen clinical research studies for the detection of prostate cancer. J Urol 1998; 159: 5–12.
  • Murphy G. Radioscintiscanning of prostate cancer. Cancer Suppl 1995; 75: 1819–22.
  • Chu TM. Prostate-specific antigen in screening of prostate cancer. J Clin Lab Anal 1994; 8: 323–6.
  • Oesterling JE. PSA leads the way for detecting and following prostate cancer. Contemp Urol 1993; 5: 60–82.
  • Oesterling J. Prostatic tumor markers. Urol Clin North Am 1993; 20: 575–777.
  • Lundwall A, Lilja H. Molecular cloning of human prostate-specific antigen cDNA. FEBS Lett 1987; 214: 317–22.
  • Frey EK, Kraut H, Werle E. Ober die blutzuckersenkende wirkung des kal-likreins (Padutins). Klin Wochenschr 1932; 11: 846–9.
  • McDonald RJ, Margolius HS, Erdös EG. Molecular biology of tissue kallikrein. Biochem J 1988; 253: 313–21.
  • Fichtner J, Graves HCB, Thatcher K, et al. Prostate-specific antigen releases a kinin-like substance on proteolysis of seminal vesicle fluid that stimulates smooth muscle contraction. J Urol 1996; 155: 738–42.
  • Deperthes D, Marceau F, Frenette G, et al. Human kallikrein hK2 has low kininogenase activity while prostate-specific antigen (hK3) has none. Biochim Biophys Acta 1997; 1343: 102–6.
  • Wang MC, Valenzuela LA, Murphy GP, et al. Purification of a human prostate-specific antigen. Invest Urol 1979; 17: 159–63.
  • Wang MC, Papsidero LD, Kuriyama M, et al. Prostate antigen: a new protential marker for prostatic cancer. Prostate 1981; 2: 89–96.
  • Moncure CW, Johnston CL, Koontz WW, et al. Investigation of specific antigens in prostatic cancer. Cancer Chemother Rep 1975; 59: 105–10.
  • Flocks RH, Urich VC, Patel CA, et al. Studies on the antigenic properties of prostatic tissue. J Urol 1960; 84: 134–43.
  • Ablin RJ, Bronson P Soanes WA. Tissue- and species-specific antigens of normal human prostatic tissue. J Immunol 1970; 104: 1329–39.
  • Ablin RJ, Soanes WA Bronson P. Precipitating antigens of the normal prostate. J Reprod Fertil 1970; 22: 573–4.
  • Hara M, Inoue T, Koyanagi Y, et al. Preparation and immunoelectric assessment of antisera to human seminal plasma. Jpn J Leg Med 1966; 20: 356–62.
  • Hara M. Special Communication; Forensic immunological studies on human body fluids. Jpn J Leg Med 1974; 28: 164–76.
  • Hara M, Koyanagi Y, Innore T, et al. Some physico-chemical characteristics of gamma seminoprotein, an antigenic component specific for human seminal plasma. Nippon Hoigaku Zasshi 1971; 25: 322–4.
  • Li TS, Beling CG. Isolation and characterization of two specific antigens of human seminal plasma. Fertil Steril 1973; 24: 134–44.
  • Tsuda R, Inoue T Hara M. A seminal plasma specific antigen of prostate gland. Jpn J Leg Med 1982; 36: 703–9.
  • Sensabaugh GF. Isolation and characterization of a semen-specific protein from human seminal plasma: a potential new marker for semen identification. J Forensic Sci 1978; 23: 106–15.
  • Graves HC, Kamarei M Stamey TA. Identity of prostate-specific antigen and the semen protein P30 purified by a rapid chromatography technique. J Urol 1990; 144: 1510–5.
  • Sensabaugh GF, Blake ET. Seminal plasma protein p30: simplified purification and evidence for identity with prostate specific antigen. J Urol 1990; 144: 1523–6.
  • Wang MC, Papsidero L, Chu TM, et al. Prostate-specific antigen, p30, g-seminoprotein, and E1. Prostate 1994; 24: 107–10.
  • Graves HC, Sensabaugh GF Blake RT. Postcoital detection of male-specific semen protein. Application to the investigation of rape. N Engl J Med 1985; 312: 338–43.
  • Wang MC, Valenzuela LA, Murphy GP, et al. Tissue specific and tumor specific antigens in human prostate. Fed Proc 1977; 36: 1254.
  • Papsidero LD, Wang MC, Valenzuela LA, et al. A prostate antigen in sera of prostatic cancer patients. Cancer Res 1980; 40: 2428–32.
  • Chu TM, Kuriyama M, Johnson EA, et al. Circulating antibody to prostate antigen in patients with prostate cancer. Transplant Proc 1984; 16: 481–5.
  • Christensson A, Laurell CB, Lilja H. Enzymatic activity of prostate-specific antigen and its reactions with extracellular serine proteinase inhibitors. Eur J Biochem 1990; 194: 755–63.
  • Stenman U-H, Leinonen J, Alfthan H, et al. A complex between prostate-specific antigen and alpha 1-antichymotrypsin is the major form of prostate-specific antigen in serum of patients with prostatic cancer: assay of the complex improves clinical sensitivity for cancer. Cancer Res 1991; 51: 222–6.
  • Lilja H, Christensson A, Dahlen U, et al. Prostate-specific antigen in serum occurs predominantly in complex with alpha 1-antichymotrypsin. Clin Chem 1991; 37: 1618–25.
  • Robert M, Jacobson E, Gibbs BF, et al. Characterization of prostate-specific antigen proteolytic activity on its major physiological substrate, the sperm motility inhibitor precursor/semenogelin I. Biochemistry 1997; 36: 3811–9.
  • Kuriyama M, Wang MC, Papsidero LD, et al. Quantitation of prostate-specific antigen in serum by a sensitive enyzme immunoassay. Cancer Res 1980; 40: 4658–62.
  • Chu TM, Wand MC Papsidero L. 1984; Purified human prostate antigen. United States Patent. #4,446,122.
  • Wang MC, Kuriyama M, Papsidero LD, et al. Prostate antigen of human cancer patients. In: Bush H, Yeoman LC eds. Methods in cancer research: tumor markers. 19th ed. Pp. 179–97. New York: Academic Press, 1982.
  • Chu TM, Murphy GP. What’s new in tumor markers for prostate cancer? Urology 1986; 27: 487–91.
  • Chu TM, Kawinski E, Hibi N, et al. Prostate-specific antigenic domain of human prostate-specific antigen identified with monoclonal antibodies. J Urol 1989; 141: 152–6.
  • Chu TM. Prostate-specific antigen and early detection of prostate cancer. Tumor Biol 1997; 18: 123–34.
  • Hara M, Kimura H. Two prostate-specific antigens, gamma-seminoprotein and beta-microseminoprotein. J Lab Clin Med 1989; 113: 541–8.
  • Arai Y, Yoshiki T, Okada K, et al. Multiple marker evaluation in prostatic cancer using prostatic specific antigen, gamma-seminoprotein and prostatic acid phos-phatase. Urol Int 1989; 44: 135–40.
  • Maier U, Simak R. Gamma-seminoprotein — A new tumor marker in prostatic cancer? Results of a pilot study. Br J Urol 1990; 65: 509.
  • Schaller J, Akiyama K, Tsuda R, et al. Isolation, characterization and amino-acid sequence of gamma-seminoprotein, a glycoprotein from human seminal plasma. Eur J Biochem 1987; 170: 111–8.
  • Demura T, Ohyama I, Togashi M, et al. Prostate-specific antigen (PSA)/gamma-seminoprotein ratio in the cases with PSA levels less than or equal to 10.0 ng/ ml. Nippon Hinyokika Gakkai Zasshi 1995; 86: 296–303.
  • Demura T, Watarai Y, Togashi M, et al. Measurement of prostate-specific antigen and gamma-seminoprotein ratio: a new means of distinguishing benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostate cancer. J Urol 1993; 150: 1740.
  • Akiyama K, Nakamura T, Iwanaga S, et al. The chymotrypsin-like activity of human prostate-specific antigen. FEBS Lett 1987; 225: 168–72.
  • Wang TJ, Rittenhouse HG, Wolfert RL, et al. PSA concentrations in seminal plasma. Clin Chem 1998; 44: 895–6.
  • Diamandis EP, Yu H. Nonprostatic sources of prostate-specific antigen. Urol Clinics of North Am 1997; 2: 275–82.
  • Lilja H, Lundwall A. Molecular cloning of epididymal and seminal vesicular transcripts encoding a semenogelin-related protein. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1992; 89: 4559–63.
  • Lilja H. Seminal vesicle-secreted proteins and their reactions during gelation and liquefaction of human semen. J Clin Invest 1987; 80: 281–5.
  • Bostwick DG. Evaluating prostate needle biopsy: therapeutic and prognostic importance. CA Cancer J Clin 1997; 47: 297–319.
  • American Cancer Society. Prostate Cancer: Incidence and mortality. Cancer Facts & Figures 1998. Pp. 20–4. Atlanta: American Cancer Society, 1998.
  • Marley GM, Miller MC, Kattan MW, et al. Free and complexed prostate-specific antigen serum ratios to predict probability of primary prostate cancer and benign prostatic hyperplasia. Urology 1996; 48: 16–22.
  • Reissigl A, Klocker H, Pointner J, et al. Usefulness of the ratio free/total prostate-specific antigen in addition to total PSA levels in prostate cancer screening. Urology 1996; 48: 62–6.
  • Thiel RP, Oesterling JE, Wojno KJ, et al. Multicenter comparison of the diagnostic performance of free prostate-specific antigen. Urology 1996; 48: 45–50.
  • Van Cangh PJ, De Nayer P, De Vischer L, et al. Free to total prostate-specific antigen (PSA) ratio improves the discrimination between prostate cancer and benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) in the diagnostic gray zone of 1.8 to 10 ng/ ml total PSA. Urology 1996; 48: 67–70.
  • Van Cangh PJ, De Nayer P, Sauvage P, et al. Free to total prostate-specific antigen (PSA) ratio is superior to total-PSA in differentiating benign prostate hypertrophy from prostate cancer. Prostate 1996; 30–4.
  • Van Iersel MP, Witjes WPJ, Thomas CMG, et al. Review on the simultaneous determination of total prostate-specific antigen and free prostate-specific antigen. Prostate 1996; 48–57.
  • Catalona WJ, Partin AW, Slawin KM, et al. Use of percentage free prostate-specific antigen to enhance differentiation of prostate cancer from benign pro-static disease: A prospective multicenter clinical trial. JAMA 1998; 279: 1542–1547.
  • Henttu P, Lukkarinen O Vihko P. Expression of the gene coding for human prostate-specific antigen and related hGK-1 in benign and malignant tumors of the human prostate. Int J Cancer 1990; 45: 654–60.
  • Schedlich LJ, Morris BJ. Three Alu repreated sequences associated with a human glandular kallikrein gene. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 1988; 15: 339–44.
  • Kumar A, Goel AS, Hill TM, et al. Expression of human glandular kallikrein, hK2, in mammalian cells. Cancer Res 1996; 56: 5397–402.
  • Mikolajczyk SD, Millar LS, Kumar A, et al. Human glandular kallikrein, hK2, shows arginine-restricted specificity and forms complexes with plasma protease inhibitors. Prostate 1998; 34: 44–50.
  • Frenette G, Deperthes D, Tremblay RR, et al. Purification of enzymatically active kallikrein hK2 from human seminal plasma. Biochim Biophys Acta 1997; 1334: 109–15.
  • Kumar A, Mikolajczyk SD, Goel AS, et al. Expression of pro form of prostate-specific antigen by mammalian cells and its conversion to mature, active form by human kallikrein 2. Cancer Res 1997; 57: 3111–4.
  • Lovgren J, Rajakoski K, Karp M, et al. Activation of the zymogen form of prostate-specific antigen by human glandular kallikrein 2. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1997; 238: 549–55.
  • Takayama TK, Fujikawa K Davie EW. Characterization of the precursor of prostate-specific antigen — activation by trypsin and by human glandular kal-likrein. J Biol Chem 1997; 272: 21582–8.
  • Corey E, Arfman EW, Oswin MM, et al. Detection of circulating prostate cells by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction of human glandular kallikrein (hK2) and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) messages. Urology 1997; 50: 184–8.
  • Kawakami M, Okaneya T, Furihata K, et al. Detection of prostate cancer cells circulating in peripheral blood by reverse transcription-PCR for hKLK2. Cancer Res 1997; 57: 4167–70.
  • Van Nguyen C, Song W, Scardino PT, et al. 1998; RT-PCR for PSA and hK2-implications for staging and patient management in men undergoing radical prostatectomy. J Urol 159: 289(abstract).
  • Gauthier ER, Chapdeline P, Tremblay RR, et al. Characterization of rhesus monkey prostate-specific antigen cDNA. Biochim Biophys Acta 1993; 1174: 207–10.
  • Neal DE, Clejan S, Sarma D, et al. Prostate-specific antigen and prostatitis 1. Effect of prostatitis on serum PSA in the human and non-human primate. Prostate 1992; 20: 105–11.
  • Aumüller G, Sietz J, Lilja H, et al. Species- and organ-specificity of secretory proteins derived from human prostate and seminal vesicles. Prostate 1990; 17: 31–40.
  • Clements JA. The molecular biology of the kallikreins and their roles in inflammation. In: Farmer SG ed. The kinin system Pp. 72–97. San Diego: Academic Press, 1997.
  • Bell FW, Klausner JS, Hayden DW, et al. Evaluation of serum and seminal plasma markers in the diagnosis of canine prostatic disorders. J Vet Intern Med 1995; 9: 149–53.
  • Isaacs WB, Coffey DS. The predominant protein of canine seminal plasma is an enzyme. J Biol Chem 1984; 258: 11520–6.
  • Isaacs WB, Shaper JH. Isolation and characterization of the major androgen-depen-dent glycoprotein of canine prostatic fluid. J Biol Chem 1982; 258: 6610–5.
  • Elmoujahed A, Gutman N, Brillard M, et al. Substrate specificity of two kal-likrein family gene products isolated from the rat submaxillary gland. FEBS Lett 1990; 265: 137–40.
  • Moreau T, Brillard-Bourdet M, Chagas J, et al. Pro-rat atrial natriuretic peptide-mimicking peptides as substrates for rat kallikreins rK2 (tonin) and rK9. Biochim Biophys Acta 1995; 1249: 168–72.
  • Sinha AA, Wilson MJ, Gleason DF. Immunoelectron microscopic localization of prostatic-specific antigen in human prostate by the protein A-gold complex. Cancer 1987; 60: 1288–93.
  • Frankel AE, Rouse RV, Wang MC, et al. Monclonal antibodies to a human prostate antigen. Cancer Res 1982; 42: 3714–8.
  • Warhol MJ, Logtine JA. The ultrastructural localisation of prostate-specific antigen and prostatic acid phosphatase in hyperplastic and neoplastic human prostates. J Urol 1985; 1343: 607–13.
  • Sinha AA, Sackrison JL, Deleon OF, et al. Antibody immunoglobulin G (IgG) against human prostatic-specific antigen (PSA) as a carrier protein for chemo-therapeutic drugs to human prostate tumors. Part 1. A double immunofluores-cence analysis. Anat Rec 1996; 245: 652–61.
  • Qiu SD, Young CY, Bilhartz DL, et al. In situ hybridization of prostate-specific antigen mRNA in human prostate. J Urol 1990; 144: 1550–6.
  • Sauvageot J, Epstein JI. Immunoreactivity for prostate-specific antigen and prostatic acid phosphatase in adenocarcinoma of the prostate: Relation to progression following radical prostatectomy. Prostate 1998; 34: 29–33.
  • Frenette G, Gervais Y, Tremblay RR, et al. Contamination of purified prostate-specific antigen preparations by kallikrein hK2. J Urol 1998; 159: 1375–8.
  • Habib FK, Ross M, Tate R, et al. Differential effect of finasteride on the tissue androgen concentrations in benign prostatic hyperplasia. Clin Endocrinol 1997; 46: 137–44.
  • Ornstein DK, Rao GS, Smith DS, et al. Effect of digital rectal examination and needle biopsy on serum total and percentage of free prostate-specific antigen levels. J Urol 1997; 157: 195–8.
  • Rana A, Chisholm GD. He sold his bike for a low prostate-specific antigen. J Urol 1994; 151: 700.
  • Oremek GM, Seiffert UB. Physical activity releases prostate-specific antigen (PSA) from the prostate gland into blood and increases serum PSA concentrations. Clin Chem 1996; 42: 691–5.
  • Crawford ED, Mackenzie SH, Safford HR, et al. The effect of bicycle riding on serum prostate-specific antigen levels. J Urol 1996; 156: 103–5.
  • Stamey TA, Yang N, Hay AR, et al. Prostate-specific antigen as a serum marker for adenocarcinoma of the prostate. N Engl J Med 1987; 317: 909–16.
  • Simak R, Madersbacher S, Zhang ZF, et al. The impact of ejaculation on serum prostate-specific antigen. Urology 1993; 150: 895–7.
  • McAleer JK, Gerson LW, McMahon D, et al. Effect of digital rectal examination (and ejaculation) on serum prostate-specific antigen after twenty-four hours. A randomized, prospective study. Urology 1993; 41: 111–2.
  • Netto NR, Apuzzo F, de Andrade E, et al. The effects of ejaculation on serum prostate-specific antigen. J Urol 1996; 155: 1329–31.
  • Heidenreich A, Vorreuther R, Neubauer S, et al. The influence of ejaculation on serum levels of prostate-specific antigen. J Urol 1997; 157: 209–11.
  • Herschman JD, Smith DS Catalona WJ. Effect of ejaculation on serum total and free prostate-specific antigen concentrations. Urology 1997; 50: 239–43.
  • Glenski WJ, Klee GG, Bergstralh EJ, et al. Prostate-specific antigen: establishment of the reference range for the clinically normal prostate gland and the effect of digital rectal examination, ejaculation, and time on serum concentrations. Prostate 1992; 21: 99–110.
  • Tchetgen MB, Song JT, Strawderman M, et al. Ejaculation increases the serum prostate-specific antigen concentration. Urology 1996; 47: 511–6.
  • Ornstein DK, Smith DS, Rao GS, et al. Biological variation of total, free and percent free serum prostate-specific antigen levels in screening volunteers. J Urol 1997; 157: 2179–82.
  • Nixon RG, Wener MH, Smith KM, et al. Biological variation of prostate-specific antigen levels in serum: An evaluation of day-to-day physiological fluctuations in a well-defined cohort of 24 patients. J Urol 1997; 157: 2183–90.
  • Aus G, Bergdahl S, Frosing R, et al. Reference range of prostate-specific antigen after transurethral resection of the prostate. Urology 1996; 47: 529–31.
  • Marks LS, Dorey FJ, Rhodes T, et al. Serum prostate-specific antigen levels after transurethral resection of prostate: a longitudinal characterization in men with benign prostatic hyperplasia [see comments]. J Urol 1996; 156: 1035–9.
  • Oesterling JE, Rice DC Glenski WJ. Effect of cystoscopy, prostate biopsy, and transurethral resection of prostate on serum prostate-specific antigen concentration. Urology 1993; 42: 276–82.
  • Oesterling JE, Chan DW Epstein JI. Prostate-specific antigen in the preoperative and postoperative evaluation of localized prostatic cancer treated with radical prostatectomy. J Urol 1988; 139: 766–72.
  • Stamey TA, Dietrick DD Issa MM. Large, organ confined, impalpable transition zone prostate cancer: Association with metastatic levels of prostate specific antigen. J Urol 1993; 149: 510–5.
  • Partin AW, Carter HB, Chan DW, et al. Prostate-specific antigen in the staging of localized prostate cancer: influence of tumor differentiation, tumor volume and benign hyperplasia. J Urol 1990; 143: 747–52.
  • Mikolajczyk SD, Grauer LS, Millar LS, et al. A precursor form of PSA (proPSA) is a component of the free PSA in prostate cancer serum. Urology 1997; 50: 710–4.
  • Zhang WM, Leinonen J, Kalkkinen N, et al. Purification and characterization of different molecular forms of prostate-specific antigen in human seminal fluid. Clin Chem 1995; 41: 1567–73.
  • Otto A, Bar J, Birkenmeier G. Prostate-specific antigen forms complexes with human a2-macroglobulin and binds to the a2-macroglobulin receptor-related protein. J Urol 1998; 159: 297–303.
  • Van Nguyen C, Dickason R, Song W, et al. RT-PCR for hK2 mRNA: a new assay for detecting circulating prostate cells. J Urol 1997; 157: 112.
  • Diamandis EP, Yu H. New biological function of prostate-specific antigen? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995; 80: 1515–7.
  • Diamandis EP. Prostate-specific antigen or human kallikrein 3? Recent developments. Tumor Biol 1998; 19: 65–8.
  • Sauter ER, Daly M, Lenahan K, et al. Prostate-specific antigen levels in nipple aspirate fluid correlate with breast cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1996; 5: 967–70.
  • Foretova L, Garber JE, Sadowsky NL, et al. Prostate-specific antigen in nipple aspirate. (letter). Lancet 1996; 347: 1631.
  • Yu H, Diamandis EP. Measurement of serum prostate-specific antigen levels in females and in prostatectomized males with an ultrasensitive immunoassay technique. J Urol 1995; 153: 1004–8.
  • Ellis WJ, Vessella RL, Noteboom JL, et al. Early detection of recurrent prostate cancer with an ultrasensitive chemiluminescent prostate-specific antigen assay. Urology 1997; 50: 573–9.
  • Zarghami N, Grass L, Sauter ER, et al. Prostate-specific antigen in serum during the menstrual cycle. Clin Chem 1997; 43: 1862–7.
  • Borchert GH, Melegos DN, Tomlinson G, et al. Molecular forms of prostate-specific antigen in the serum of women with benign and malignant breast diseases. Br J Cancer 1997; 76: 1087–94.
  • Borchert GH, Giai M, Diamandis EP. Elevated levels of prostate-specific antigen in serum of women with fibroadenomas and breast cysts. J Natl Cancer Inst 1997; 89: 587–8.
  • Frazier HA, Humphrey PA, Burchette JL, et al. Immunoreactive prostate-specific antigen in male periurethral glands. J Urol 1992; 147: 246–8.
  • Kamoshida S, Tsutsumi Y. Extraprostatic localization of prostatic acid phosphatase and prostate-specific antigen: distribution in cloacogenic glandular epithelium and sex-dependent expression in human anal gland. Hum Pathol 1990; 21: 1108–11.
  • Pollen JJ, Dreilinger A. Immunohistochemical identification of prostatic acid phosphatase and PSA in female periurethral glands. Urology 1984; 23: 303–4.
  • Spencer JR, Brodin AG Ignatoff JM. Clear cell adenocarcinoma of the urethra: evidence for origin within paraurethral ducts. J Urol 1990; 143: 122–5.
  • Graves HCB. Nonprostatic sources of prostate-specific antigen: A steroid hormone-dependent phenomenon? Clin Chem 1995; 41: 7–9.
  • Ablin RJ. Prostate-specific antigen in the female prostate (letter). Clin Chem 1989; 35: 507–8.
  • Huffman JW. The detailed anatomy of the paraurethral ducts in the adult human female. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1948; 44: 86–100.
  • Huffman JW. Clinical significance of the paraurethral ducts and glands. Arch Surg 1951; 62: 615–26.
  • Tepper SL, Jagirdar J, Heath D, et al. Homology between the female paraurethral Skene’s glands and the prostate: Immunohistochemical demonstration. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1984; 108: 423–5.
  • Sauer MV, Madej RM, Fisher H, et al. Identification of prostate-specific antigen in the vaginal secretions of a male pseudohermaphrodite. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1986; 155: 872.
  • Stamey TA, Graves H, Wehner N, et al. Early detection of residual prostate cancer after radical prostatectomy by an ultrasensitive assay for prostate-specific antigen. J Urol 1993; 149: 787–92.
  • Prestigiacomo A, Stamey TA. A comparison of four ultrasensitive prostate specific antigen assays for early detection of residual cancer after radical prostatectomy. J Urol 1994; 152: 1515–9.
  • Yu H, Diamandis EP. Ultrasensitive time-resolved immunofluorometric assay of prostate-specific antigen in the serum and preliminary clinical studies. Clin Chem 1993; 39: 2108–14.
  • Diamandis EP, Yu H Melegos DN. Ultrasenstive prostate-specific antigen assays and their clinical application. Clin Chem 1996; 42: 853–7.
  • Ferguson RA, Yu H, Kalyvas M, et al. Ultra-sensitive detection of prostate-specific antigen by time-resolved immunofluorometric assay and the Immulite immunochemiluminescent third-generation assay: potential applications in prostate. Clin Chem 1996; 42: 675–84.
  • Yu H, Diamandis EP, Wong PY, et al. Detection of prostate cancer relapse with prostate-specific antigen monitoring at levels of 0.001 to 0.1 mg/l. J Urol 1997; 157: 913–8.
  • Vessella R. Trends in immunoassays of prostate-specific antigen: serum complexes and ultrasensitivity. Clin Chem 1993; 39: 2035–9.
  • Oesterling JE, Tekchandani AH, Martin SK, et al. The periurethral glands do not significantly influence the serum prostate-specific antigen concentration. J Urol 1996; 155: 1658–60.
  • Tremblay J, Frenette G, Tremblay RR, et al. Excretion of three major prostatic secretory proteins in the urine of normal men and patients with benign prostatic hypertrophy or prostate cancer. Prostate 1987; 10: 235–43.
  • DeVere White RW, Meyers FJ, Soares SE, et al. Urinary prostate-specific antigen levels: role in monitoring the response of prostate cancer to therapy. J Urol 1992; 147: 947–51.
  • Takayama TK, Vessella RL, Brawer MK, et al. Urinary prostate specific antigen levels after radical prostatectomy. J Urol 1994; 151: 82–7.
  • Yu H, Diamandis EP Sutherland DJA. Immunoreactive prostate-specific antigen levels in female and male breast tumors and its association with steriod hormone receptors and patient age. Clin Biochem 1994; 27: 75–9.
  • Yu H, Diamandis EP, Zarghami N, et al. Induction of prostate specific antigen production by steroids and tamoxifen in breast cancer cell lines. Breast Cancer Res Treat 1994; 32: 291–300.
  • Monne M, Croce CM Diamandis EP. Molecular characterization of prostate-specific antigen messenger RNA expressed in breast tumors. Cancer Res 1994; 54: 6344–7.
  • Yu H, Giai M, Diamandis EP, et al. Prostate-specific antigen is a new favorable prognostic indicator for women with breast cancer. Cancer Res 1995; 55: 2104–10.
  • Yu H, Diamandis EP, Monne M, et al. Oral contraceptive induced expression of prostate-specific antigen in the female breast. J Biol Chem 1995; 270: 6615–8.
  • Zarghami N, Grass L, Diamandis EP. Steroid hormone regulation of prostate-specific antigen gene expression in breast cancer. Br J Cancer 1997; 75: 579–88.
  • Levesque MA, Clark GM, Yu H, et al. Immunofluorometric analysis of p53 protein and prostate-specific antigen in breast tumours and their association with other prognostic indicators. Br J Cancer 1995; 72: 720–7.
  • Yu H, Diamandis EP. Prostate specific antigen in milk of lactating women. Clin Chem 1995; 41: 54–8.
  • Hsieh ML, Charlesworth MC, Goodmanson M, et al. Expression of human prostate-specific glandular kallikrein protein (hK2) in the breast cancer cell line T47-D. Cancer Res 1997; 57: 2651–6.
  • Papotti M, Paties C, Peveri V, et al. Immunocytochemical detection of prostate-specific antigen. PSA in skin adnexal and breast tissues and tumors. Basic Appl Histochem 1989; 33: 25–9.
  • Elgamal AA, Ectors NL, Sunardhi-Widyaputra S, et al. Detection of prostate-specific antigen in pancreas and salivary glands: a potential impact on prostate cancer overestimation. J Urol 1996; 156: 464–8.
  • Van Krieken JH. Prostate marker immunoreactivity in salivary gland neoplasms. Am J Surg Pathol 1993; 17: 410–4.
  • Yu H, Diamandis EP. Prostate specific antigen immunoreactivity in amniotic fluid. Clin Chem 1995; 41: 204–10.
  • Lundwall A. Characterization of the gene for prostate-specific antigen, a human glandular kallikrein. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1989; 161: 1151–9.
  • Chung DW, Fujikawa K, McMullen BA, et al. Human plasma prekallikrein, a zymogen to a serine protease that contains four tandem repeats. Biochemistry 1986; 25: 2410–7.
  • Evans BA, Yun ZX, Close JA, et al. Structure and chromosomal localization of the human renal kallikrein gene. Biochemistry 1988; 27: 3124–9.
  • Bélanger A, Van Halbeek H, Graves HCB, et al. Molecular mass and carbohydrate structure of prostate specific antigen: Studies for establishment of an international PSA standard. Prostate 1995; 27: 187–97.
  • Baffa R, Moreno JG, Monne M, et al. A comparative analysis of prostate-specific antigen gene sequence in benign and malignant prostate tissue. Urology 1996; 47: 795–800.
  • Herrala A, Kurkela R, Porvari K, et al. Human prostate-specific glandular kallikrein is expressed as an active and an inactive protein. Clin Chem 1997; 43: 279–84.
  • Mikolajczyk SD, Millar LS, Marker KM, et al. Alanine 217 is important for the catalytic function and autoactivation of human glandular kallikrein, hK2. Eur J Biochem 1997; 246: 440–6.
  • Riegman PHJ, Vlietstra RJ, Van der Korput HAGM, et al. Identification and androgen-regulated expression of two major human glandular kallikrein-1 (hGK-1) mRNA species. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1991; 76: 181–90.
  • Murtha P, Tindall DJ Young CY. Androgen induction of a human prostate-specific kallikrein, hKLK2: characterization of an androgen response element in the 5¢ promoter region of the gene. Biochemistry 1993; 32: 6459–64.
  • Shan J-D, Porvari K, Ruokonen M, et al. Steroid-involved transcriptional regulation of human genes encoding prostatic acid phosphatase, prostate-specific antigen, and prostate-specific glandular kallikrein. Endocrinology 1997; 138: 3764–70.
  • Pang S, Dannull J, Kaboo R, et al. Identification of a positive regulatory element responsible for tissue-specific expression of prostate-specific antigen. Cancer Res 1997; 57: 495–9.
  • Zhang SB, Murtha PE, Young CYF. Defining a functional androgen responsive element in the 5¢ far upstream flanking region of the prostate-specific antigen gene. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1997; 231: 784–8.
  • Cleutjens KBJM, Van der Korput HAGM, Van Eekelen CCEM, et al. An androgen response element in a far upstream enhancer region is essential for high, androgen-regulated activity of the prostate-specific antigen promoter. Mol Endocrinol 1997; 11: 148–61.
  • Schuur ER, Henderson GA, Kmetec LA, et al. Prostate-specific antigen expression is regulated by an upstream enhancer. J Biol Chem 1996; 271: 7043–51.
  • Hsieh TC, Wu JM. Effects of fenretinide (4-HPR) on prostate LNCaP cell growth, apoptosis, and prostate-specific gene expression. Prostate 1997; 33: 97–104.
  • Wang LG, Liu XM, Kreis W, et al. Down-regulation of prostate-specific antigen expression by finasteride through inhibition of complex formation between androgen receptor and steroid receptor-binding consensus in the promoter of the PSA gene in LNCaP cells. Cancer Res 1997; 57: 714–9.
  • Young CY, Murtha PE, Andrews PE, et al. Antagonism of androgen action in prostate tumor cells by retinoic acid. Prostate 1994; 25: 39–45.
  • Pannek J, Marks LS, Pearson JD, et al. Influence of finasteride on free and total serum prostate specific antigen levels in men with benign prostatic hyperplasia. J Urology 1998; 159: 449–53.
  • Gleave ME, Hsieh JT, Wu HC, et al. Serum prostate specific antigen levels in mice bearing human prostate LNCaP tumors are determined by tumor volume and endocrine and growth factors. Cancer Res 1992; 52: 1598–605.
  • Kozlowski JM, Sherwood ER, Fong CJ, et al. The impact of androgen, extracellular matrix, and stroma upon proliferation and differentiation of benign and malignant prostate epithelial cells. In: Karr JP ed. Molecular and cellular biology of prostate cancer. Pp. 27–50. New York: Plenum Press, 1991.
  • Skowronski RJ, Peehl DM Feldman D. Vitamin D and prostate cancer: 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3 receptors and actions in human prostate cancer cell lines. Endocrinology 1993; 132: 1952–60.
  • Young CY, Murtha PE, Zhang J. Tumor-promoting phorbol ester-induced cell death and gene expression in a human prostate adenocarcinoma cell line. Oncol Res 1996; 6: 203–10.
  • Murtha PE, Zhu W, Zhang J, et al. Effect of Ca++ mobilization on expression of androgen-regulated genes: Interference with androgen receptor-mediated transactivation by AP-1 proteins. Prostate 1997; 33: 264–70.
  • Sun Z, Pan J Balk SP. Androgen receptor-associated protein complex binds upstream of the androgen-responsive elements in the promoters of human prostate-specific antigen and kallikrein 2 genes. Nucleic Acids Res 1997 1997; 25: 3318–25.
  • Bridon DP, Dowell BL. Structural comparison of prostate-specific antigen and human glandular kallikrein using molecular modeling. Urology 1995; 45: 801–6.
  • Vihinen M. Modeling of prostate specific antigen and human glandular kal-likrein structures. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1994; 204: 1251–6.
  • Villoutreix BO, Getzoff ED Griffin JH. A structural model for the prostate disease marker, human prostate-specific antigen. Protein Sci 1994; 3: 2033–44.
  • Villoutreix BO, Lilja H, Pettersson K, et al. Structural investigation of the alpha-1-antichymotrypsin: prostate-specific antigen complex by comparative model building. Protein Sci 1996; 5: 836–51.
  • Katz BA, Liu B, Barnes M, et al. Crystal structure of recombinant human tissue kallikrein at 2.0 Å resolution. Protein Science 1998; 7: 875–85.
  • Wang TJ, Linton HJ, Sokoloff RL, et al. Antibody specificities for PSA and PSA fragments by SDS-PAGE western blot analysis. Tumour Biol 1998; (in press).
  • España F, Sánchez-Cuenca J, Estellés A, et al. Quantitative immunoassay for complexes of prostate-specific antigen with a2-macroglobulin. Clin Chem 1996; 42: 545–50.
  • Bei R, Paranavitana C, Milenic D, et al. Generation, purification, and characterization of a recombinant source of human prostate-specific antigen. J Clin Lab Anal 1995; 9: 261–8.
  • Kurkela R, Herrala A, Henttu P, et al. Expression of active, secreted human prostate-specific antigen by recombinant baculovirus-infected insect cells on a pilot-scale. Biotechnology 1995; 13: 1230–4.
  • Lövgren J, Piironen T, Övermo C, et al. Production of recombinant PSA and hK2 and analysis of their immunologic cross-reactivity. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1995; 213: 888–95.
  • Khan AR, James MNG. Molecular mechanisms for the conversion of zymogens to active proteolytic enzymes. Protein Science 1998; 7: 815–36.
  • Morris BJ. hGK-1: a kallikrein gene expressed in human prostate. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 1989; 16: 345–51.
  • Paradis G, Tremblay RR Dube JY. Looking for human glandular kallikrein-1 in the prostate. Prostate 1989; 15: 343–53.
  • Bourgeois L, Brillard-Bourdet M, Deperthes D, et al. Serpin-derived peptide substrates for investigating the substrate specificity of human tissue kallikreins hK1 and hK2. J Biol Chem 1997; 47: 29590–5.
  • Saedi MS, Cass MM, Goel AS, et al. Overexpression of a human prostate-specific glandular kallikrein, hK2, in E. coli and generation of antibodies. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1995; 109: 237–41.
  • Belanger A, Van Halbeek H, Graves HCB, et al. Molecular mass and carbohydrate structure of prostate-specific antigen: studies for establishment of an international PSA standard. Prostate 1995; 27: 187–97.
  • Van Dieijen-Visser MP, Van Pelt J Delaere KP. Pitfalls in the differentiation of N-glycosylation variants of prostate-specific antigen using concanavalin A. Eur J Clin Chem Clin Biochem 1994; 32: 473–8.
  • Van Halbeek H, Gerwig GJ, Vliegenthart JF, et al. Occurrence of the Y determinant on the N-glycosidic carbohydrate units of human gamma-seminoprotein. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1985; 131: 507–14.
  • Eerola R, Piironen T, Pettersson K, et al. Immunoractivity of recombinant human glandular kallikrein using monoclonal antibodies raised against prostate-specific antigen. Prostate 1997; 31: 84–90.
  • Lu HS, Lin FK, Chao L, et al. Human urinary kallikrein. Complete amino acid sequence and sites of glycosylation. Int J Pept Protein Res 1989; 33: 237–49.
  • Kellermann R, Lottspeich F, Geiger R, et al. Human urinary kallikrein — amino acid sequence and carbohydrate attachment sites. Protein Seq Data Anal 1988; 1: 177–82.
  • Geiger R, Fritz H. Human urinary kallikrein. Methods Enzymol 1996; 80 Pt C: 466–92.
  • Clements J. The glandular kallikrein family of enzymes: tissue specific expression and hormonal regulation. Endocrine Rev 1989; 10: 393–419.
  • Margolius HS. Kallikreins and kinins — molecular characteristics and cellular and tissue responses. Diabetes 1996; 45: S14–9.
  • Schachter M. Kallikreins (kininogenases) — a group of serine proteases with bioregulatory actions. Pharmacol Rev 1980; 31: 1–17.
  • Denmeade SR, Lou W, Loevgren J, et al. Specific and efficient peptide substrates for assaying the proteolytic activity of prostate-specific antigen. Cancer Res 1997; 57: 4924–30.
  • Yoshida E, Ohmura S, Sugiki M, et al. Prostate-specific antigen activates single-chain urokinase-type plasminogen activator. Int J Cancer 1995; 63: 863–5.
  • Frenette G, Tremblay RR, Lazure C, et al. Prostatic kallikrein hK2, but not prostate-specific antigen (hK3), activates single-chain urokinase-type plasmino-gen activator. Int J Cancer 1997; 71: 897–9.
  • Lilja J, Abrahamsson PA Lundwall A. Semenogelin, the predominant protein in human semen. J Biol Chem 1989; 264: 1894–900.
  • Dube JY, Gaudreault D Tremblay RR. The concentration of immunoreactive prostate specific antigen is not decreased in viscous semen samples. Andrologia 1989; 21: 136–9.
  • Ahlgren G, Rannevik G Lilja H. Impaired secretory function of the prostate in men with oligo-asthenozoospermia. J Androl 1995; 16: 491–8.
  • Glander HJ, Kratzsch J, Weisbrich C, et al. Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and a2-macroglobulin (a2-MG) in seminal plasma correlates with semen quality. Hum Reprod 1996; 11: 2454–60.
  • Cohen P, Graves HCB, Peehl DM, et al. Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is an insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 protease found in seminal plasma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1992; 76: 1046–53.
  • Cohen P, Peehl DM, Lamson G, et al. Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs), IGF receptors, and IGF binding proteins in primary cultures of prostate epithelial cell. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1991; 73: 401–7.
  • Kanety J, Madjar Y, Dagan J, et al. Serum insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-2 (IGFBP-2) is increased and IGFBP-3 is decreased in patients with prostate cancer: correlation with serum prostate-specific antigen. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1993; 77: 229–33.
  • Chan JM, Stampfer MJ, Giovannucci E, et al. Plasma insulin-like growth factor-I and prostate cancer risk: a prospective study. Science 1998; 279: 563–5.
  • Tennant MK, Thrasher JB, Twomey PA, et al. Insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-2 and -3 expression in benign human prostate epithelium, prostate intraepithelial neoplasia, and adenocarcinoma of the prostate. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996; 81: 411–20.
  • Killian CS, Corral DA, Kawinski E, et al. Mitogenic response of osteoblast cells to prostate-specific antigen suggests an activation of latent TGF-b and a pro-teolytic modulation of cell adhesion receptor. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1993; 192: 940–7.
  • Iwamura M, Hellman J, Cockett ATK, et al. Alteration of the hormonal bioac-tivity of parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) as a result of limited proteolysis by prostate-specific antigen. Urology 1996; 48: 317–25.
  • Noda Y, Takada Y, Erdos EG. Activation of human and rabbit prokallikrein by serine and metalloproteases. Kidney Int 1985; 27: 630–5.
  • Takada Y, Skidgel RA Erdos EG. Purification of human urinary prokallikrein: identification of the site of activation by the metalloproteinase thermolysin. Biochem J 1985; 232: 851–8.
  • Moreau T, Brillard-Bourdet M, Bouhnik J, et al. Protein products of the rat kallikrein family. J Biol Chem 1992; 14: 10045–51.
  • Fielder PJ, Rosenfeld RG Graves HCB. Biochemical analysis of prostate specific antigen-proteolyzed insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3. Growth Regul 1994; 4: 164–72.
  • Achbarou A, Kaiser S, Tremblay G, et al. Urokinase overproduction results in increased skeletal metastasis by prostate cancer cells in vivo. Cancer Res 1994; 54: 2372–7.
  • Lyon PB, See WA, Xu Y, et al. Diversity and modulation of plasminogen activator inhibitor activity in human prostate carcinoma cell lines. Prostate 1995; 27: 179–86.
  • Soff GA, Sanderowitz J, Gately S, et al. Expression of plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 by human prostate carcinoma cells inhibits primary tumor growth, tumor-associated angiogenesis, and metastasis to lung and liver in an athymic mouse model. J Clin Invest 1995; 96: 2593–600.
  • Tremblay RR, Deperthes D, Têtu B, et al. Immunohistochemical study suggesting a complementary role of kallikreins hK2 and hK3 (prostate-specific antigen) in the functional analysis of human prostate tumors. Am J Pathol 1997; 150: 455–9.
  • Travis J, Salvesen G. Human plasma proteinase inhibitors. Annu Rev Biochem 1983; 52: 655–709.
  • Hunt L, Dayhoff MO. A surprising new protein superfamily containing ovalbu-min, antithrombin-III and alpha1-proteinase inhibitor. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1980; 95: 864–71.
  • Chandra T, Stackhouse R, Kidd V, et al. Sequence homology between human alpha1-antichymotrypsin, alpha1-antitrypsin and antithrombin III. Biochemistry 1983; 22: 5055–61.
  • Mast AE, Enghild JJ, Pizzo SV, et al. Analysis of the plasma elimination kinetics and conformational stabilities of native, proteinase-complexed, and reactive site cleaved serpins: comparison of alpha1-proteinase inhibitor, alpha1-antichymotrypsin, antithrombin III, alpha2-antiplasmin, angiotensinogen, and ovalbumin. Biochemistry 1991; 30: 1723–30.
  • Rubin H, Wang ZM, Nickbarg EB, et al. Cloning, expression, purification and biological activity of recombinant native and variant human alpha1-antichymotrypsins. J Biol Chem 1990; 265: 1199–207.
  • Carrell R, Travis J. Alpha1-antitrypsin and the serpins: variation and countervariation. Trends Biochem Sci 1985; 10: 20–4.
  • Grauer LS, Finlay JA, Mikolajczyk SD, et al. Detection of human glandular kallikrein, hK2 as its precursor form and in complex with protease inhibitors in prostate carcinoma serum. J Andr 1998; In press.
  • Zhang WM, Leinonen J, Kalkkinen N, et al. Prostate-specific antigen forms a complex with and cleaves a1-protease inhibitor in vitro. Prostate 1997; 33: 87–96.
  • Kise H, Nishioka J, Kawamura J, et al. Characterization of semenogelin II and its molecular interaction with prostate-specific antigen and protein C inhibitor. Eur J Biochem 1996; 238: 88–96.
  • Christensson A, Lilja H. Complex-formation between protein C inhibitor and prostate-specific antigen in vitro and in human semen. Eur J Biochem 1994; 220: 45–53.
  • Laurell M, Christensson A, Abrahamsson PA, et al. Protein C inhibitor in human body fluids. J Clin Invest 1992; 89: 1094–101.
  • Zheng XL, Geiger M Ecke S. Inhibition of acrosin by protein C inhibitor and localization of protein C inhibitor to spermatozoa. Am J Physiol 1994; C466–72.
  • Heeb MJ, España F, Gittes RF, et al. Prostate specific antigen-a2-macroglobulin complexes in prostate cancer patient sera. Biochem Mol Biol Int 1995; 37: 917–23.
  • Song W, Wheeler TM, Nguyen C, et al. Western blot and immunohistochemical analysis demonstrates abundant a1-antichymotrypsin protein in both peripheral and transition zone prostate tissue in men with normal sized and enlarged prostates. J Urol 1997; 157: 754(abstract).
  • Tewari PC, Caldwell GW, Bluestein BI. Immunological characterization and quantitation of prostate specific antigen a2-macroglobulin complex in prostate cancer patient sera. Clin Chem 1995; 41: S226(abstract).
  • Woodrum D, French C Shamel LB. Stability of free prostate-specific antigen in serum samples under a variety of sample collection and sample storage conditions. Urology 1996; 48 6A Suppl: 33–9.
  • Chen Z, Chen H Stamey TA. Prostate specific antigen in benign prostatic hyperplasia: purification and characterization. J Urol 1997; 157: 2166–70.
  • Saedi MS, Hill TM, Kuus-Reichel K, et al. The precursor form of human kallikrein 2 (prohK2), a kallikrein homologous to PSA, is present in human sera and is elevated in prostate cancer and benign prostatic hyperplasia. Clin Chem 1998; (in press).
  • Chen ZX, Prestigiacomo A Stamey TA. Purification and characterization of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) complexed to 1-antichymotrypsin: potential reference material for international standardization of PSA immunoassays. Clin Chem 1995; 41: 1273–82.
  • Nilsson O, Peter A, Andersson I, et al. Antigenic determinants of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and development of assays specific for different forms of PSA. Br J Cancer 1997; 75: 789–97.
  • Laver WG, Air GM, Webster RG, et al. Epitopes on protein antigens: Misconceptions and realities. Cell 1990; 61: 553–6.
  • Corey E, Wegner SK, Stray JE, et al. Characterization of 10 new monoclonal antibodies against prostate-specific antigen by analysis of affinity, specificity and function in sandwich assays. Int J Cancer 1997; 71: 1019–28.
  • Pettersson K, Piironen T, Seppälä M, et al. Free and complexed prostate-specific antigen (PSA): In vitro stability, epitope map, and development of immunofluorometric assays for specific and sensitive detection of free PSA and PSA-1-antichymotrypsin complex. Clin Chem 1995; 41: 1480–8.
  • Corey E, Wegner SK, Corey MJ, et al. Prostate-specific antigen: characterization of epitopes by synthetic peptide mapping and inhibition studies. Clin Chem 1997; 43: 575–84.
  • Jette DC, Kreutz FT, Malcolm BA, et al. Epitope mapping of prostate-specific antigen with monoclonal antibodies. Clin Chem 1996; 42: 1961–9.
  • Piironen T, Villoutreix BO, Becker C, et al. Determination and analysis of antigenic epitopes of prostate specific antigen (PSA) and human glandular kallikrein 2 (hK2) using synthetic peptides and computer modeling. Protein Sci 1998; 7: 259–69.
  • Wang TJ, Linton HJ, Rittenhouse HG, et al. The analysis of hK2 cross-reactivity of anti-PSA monoclonal antibodies by Western blot analysis of reduced and nonreduced SDS-PAGE. Tumour Biol 1998; In Press.
  • Cohen RJ, Haffejee Z, Steele GS, et al. Advanced prostate cancer with normal serum prostate-specific antigen values. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1996; 118: 1123–6.
  • Gray E, Allison LJ, Edgar S, et al. Prostatic adenocarcinoma labeled with a monoclonal antibody and polyclonal serum: a quantitative assessment. Br J Urol 1996; 78: 104–8.
  • Corey E, Buhler KR Vessella RL. Cross-reactivity of ten anti-prostate specific antigen monoclonal antibodies with human glandular kallikrein. Urology 1997; 50: 567–72.
  • Sottrup-Jensen L. a-Macroglobulins: structure, shape, and mechanism of pro-teinase complex formation. J Biol Chem 1989; 264: 11539–42.
  • Zhou AM, Tewari PC, Bluestein BI, et al. Multiple forms of prostate-specific angigen in serum: differences in immunorecognition by monoclonal and polyclonal assays. Clin Chem 1993; 39: 2483–91.
  • Sokoloff RL, Armour KW, Wolfert RL, et al. 1994; Immunoassay analytical recovery of prostate-specific antigen purified from seminal fluid. Clin Chem 40: 1029(abstract).
  • Sokoloff RL, Esgate JA, Wang TJ, et al. Effect of prostate specific antigen forms on PSA quantitation. J Urol 1994; 151: 450A.
  • Sokoloff RL, Wolfert RL Rittenhouse HG. Standardization of PSA immunoas-says: Proposals and practical limitations. J Clin Ligand Assay 1995; 18: 86–92.
  • Graves HC. Issues on standardization of immunoassays for prostate-specific antigen: a review. Clin Invest Med 1993; 16: 415–24.
  • Graves HC. Standardization of immunoassays for prostate-specific antigen — a problem of prostate-specific antigen complexation or a problem of assay design? Cancer 1993; 72: 3141–4.
  • Strobel S, Smith K, Wolfert R, et al. Role of free PSA in discordance across commercial PSA assays. Clin Chem 1996; 42: 645–7.
  • Semjonow A, Brandt B, Oberpenning F, et al. Discordance of assay methods creates pitfalls for the interpretation of prostate-specific antigen values. Prostate 1996; 3–16.
  • Horton GL, Bahnson RR, Daft M, et al. Differences in values obtained with two assays of prostate-specific antigen. J Urol 1988; 139: 762–72.
  • Graves HCB, Wehner N Stamey TA. Comparison of a polyclonal and monoclonal immunoassay for PSA: need for an international antigen standard. J Urol 1990; 144: 1516–22.
  • Kuriyama M, Akimoto S Akaza H. Comparison of various assay systems of prostate-specific antigen for standardisation. J Clin Oncol 1992; 22: 393–9.
  • Semjonow A, Brandt B, Oberpenning F, et al. Unterschiedliche bestimmungsverfahren erschweren die interpretation des prostataspezifischen antigens. Urologe 1995; 34: 303–15.
  • Schambeck CM, Schmeller N, Stieber P, et al. Methodological and clinical comparison of the ACS prostate-specific antigen assay and the Tandem®-E prostate-specific antigen assay in prostate cancer. Urology 1995; 46: 195–9.
  • Semjonow A, Oberpenning F, Brandt B, et al. Impact of free prostate-specific antigen on discordant measurement results of assays for total prostate-specific antigen. Urology 1996; 48: 10–5.
  • Cattini R, Robinson D, Gill O, et al. Measurement of prostate-specific antigen in serum using four different immunoassays. Eur J Clin Chem Clin Biochem 1994; 32: 181–5.
  • Brawer MK, Daum P, Petteway JC, et al. Assay variability in serum prostate-specific antigen determination. Prostate 1995; 27: 1–6.
  • Jacobsen SJ, Lilja H, Klee GG, et al. Comparability of the Tandem®-R and IMx assays for the measurement of serum prostate-specific antigen. Urology 1994; 44: 512–8.
  • Burlington DB. FDA advises labs regarding off-label use of PSA assays. Clin Lab News 1995; 21: 5.
  • Nakamura RM. Current and future directions regarding quality assurance and standardisation of prostate-specific antigen immunoassays. Cancer 1994; 74: 1655–9.
  • Wu JT. Assay for prostate-specific antigen (PSA): Problems and possible solutions. J Clin Lab Anal 1994; 8: 51–62.
  • Nakamura RM, Bluestein BI, Dowell BL, et al. Primary reference preparations used to standardize calibration of immunochemical assays for serum prostate specific antigen (PSA); Approved guideline. The National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards Document. #I/LA19-A. Wayne, PA: 1997.
  • Rippey JH, Wener MH, Horoszewicz J, et al. American Cancer Society and College of American Pathologists workshop on PSA: benefits and limitations. Work group 1: Standardisation of PSA. Cancer 1993; 72: 2678–80.
  • Garg UC, Howanitz JH, Nakamura RM, et al. Production, analysis, and characterization of reference materials for prostate-specific antigen. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1995; 119: 1104–8.
  • Stamey TA, Prestigiacoma AF Chen Z. Standardisation of immunoassays for prostate-specific antigen: a different view based on experimental observations. Cancer 1994; 74: 1662–6.
  • Murphy GP. The second Stanford conference on international standardisation of prostate-specific antigen assays. Cancer 1995; 75: 122–8.
  • Stamey TA. Second Stanford conference on international standardisation of prostate-specific antigen immunoassays. Urology 1995; 45: 173–84.
  • Wu JT, Wilson L, Zhang P, et al. Correlation of serum concentrations of PSA-ACT complex with total PSA in random and serial specimens from patients with BPH and prostate cancer. J Clin Lab Anal 1995; 9: 15–24.
  • Stamey TA. Some comments on progress in the standardization of immunoas-says for prostate-specific antigen. Br J Urol 1997; 79: 49–52.
  • Chen Z, Prestigiacomo A Stamey TA. Purification and characterization of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) complexed to a1-antichymotrypsin: Potential reference material for international standardization of PSA immunoassays. Clin Chem 1995; 41: 1273–82.
  • Stamey TA, Hay AR, McNeal JE, et al. An evaluation of prostate-specific antigen in the diagnosis and treatment of prostate cancer. J Urol 1987 137: 195(abstract).
  • Chan DW, Bruzek D, Rock R, et al. Comparison of a monoclonal and a polyclonal immunoassay for prostate-specific antigen. Clin Chem 1987; 33: 927–8.
  • Turkes A, Nott JP Griffiths K. Prostate-specific antigen — problems in analysis. Eur J Cancer 1991; 27: 650–2.
  • Rittenhouse HG, Wolfert RL Wang TJ. Cross-reactivity of ten anti-prostate specific antigen monoclonal antibodies with human glandular kallikrein, editorial comment. Urology 1997; 50: 571–2.
  • Plummer K, Wirnsberger G, Purstner P, et al. False positive prostate specific antigen values in the sera of women with renal cell carcinoma. J Urol 1992; 148: 21–3.
  • Rahn HP, Angermann A, Hektor T, et al. Expression of human salivary-gland kallikrein in insect cells by a baculovirus vector. Recent progress on kinins. Agents Actions 1992; 38: 66–73.
  • Piironen T, Lovgren J, Karp M, et al. Immunofluorometric assay for sensitive and specific measurement of human prostatic glandular kallikrein (hK2) in serum. Clin Chem 1996; 42: 1034–41.
  • Gutman AB, Gutman EB. “Acid” phosphatase occurring in serum of patients with metastasizing carcinoma of prostate gland. J Clin Invest 1938; 17: 473–8.
  • Lowe FC, Trauzzi SJ. Prostatic Acid Phosphatase in 1993; Its limited clinical utility. Urol Clin North Am 1993; 589–95.
  • Moul JW, Connelly RR, Perahia B, et al. The contemporary value of pretreat-ment prostatic acid phosphatase to predict pathologic stage and recurrence in radical prostatectomy cases. J Urol 1998; 159: 935–40.
  • Pannek J, Partin AW. Prostate-specific antigen: what’s new in 1997. Oncology 1997; 11: 1273-8; discussion 1279–8.
  • Cooner WH. Definition of the Ideal Tumor Marker. Urol Clin North Am 1993; 575–9.
  • Ercole CJ, Lange PH Mathiesen M. Prostate-specific antigen and prostatic acid phosphatase in the monitoring and staging of patients with prostatic cancer. J Urol 1987; 138: 1181–4.
  • Cooner WH, Mosley BR Rutherford CL. Prostate cancer detection in a clinical urological practice by ultrasonography, digital rectal examination and prostate specific antigen. J Urol 1990; 143: 1146–52.
  • Brawer MK, Lange PH. Prostate specific antigen: its role in early detection, staging and monitoring of prostatic carcinoma. J Endourol 1989; 3: 227–36.
  • Brawer MK, Beatie J Wener MH. Screening for prostatic carcinoma with prostate specific antigen: results of the second year. J Urol 1993; 150: 106–9.
  • Catalona WJ, Smith DS Ratliff TL. Detection of organ-confined prostate cancer is increased through prostate-specific antigen-based screening. JAMA 1993; 270: 948–54.
  • DeAntoni EP, Crawford ED Oesterling JE. Age- and race-specific reference ranges for prostate-specific antigen from a large community-based study. Urology 1996; 48: 234–9.
  • Partin AW, Pound CR Clemens JQ. Serum PSA after anatomical radical prostatectomy: The Johns Hopkins experience after 10 years. Urol Clin North Am 1993; 20: 713–25.
  • Partin AW, Yoo J Carter HB. The use of prostate-specific antigen,clinical stage, and Gleason score to predict pathological stage in men with localized prostate cancer. J Urol 1993; 150: 110–4.
  • Catalona WJ. The free-to-total prostate specific antigen ratio improves the specificity of prostate specific antigen in screening for prostate cancer in the general population — comment. J Urol 1997; 157: 2196.
  • Catalona WJ, Richie JP, DeKernion JB, et al. Comparison of prostate specific antigen concentration versus prostate specific antigen density in the early detection of prostate cancer: Receiver operating characteristic curves — and — Selection of optimal prostate specific antigen cutoffs for early detection of prostate cancer: Receiver operating characteristic curves. Reply. J Urol 1995; 154: 1145–6.
  • Myrtle JF, Ivor LP. Measurement of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) in serum by a two-site immunometric assay. In: Catalona W, Coffey DS, Karr JP eds. Clinical aspects of prostate cancer; assessment of new diagnostic and management procedures. Pp. 161–71. New York: Elsiever Publishing Corp, 1989.
  • Oesterling JE, Roy J, Agha A, et al. Biologic variability of prostate-specific antigen and its usefulness as a marker for prostate cancer: effects of finasteride. Urology 1997; 50: 13–8.
  • Labrie F, Dupont A, Suburu R, et al. Serum prostate specific antigen as pre-screening test for prostate cancer. J Urol 1992; 147: 846–51.
  • Barry MJ, Fleming C, Coley CM, et al. Should Medicare provide reimbursement for prostate-specific antigen testing for early detection of prostate cancer? Part I: Framing the debate. Urology 1995; 46: 2–13.
  • Gann PH, Hennekens CH Stampfer MJ. A prospective evaluation of plasma prostate-specific antigen for detection of prostatic cancer. JAMA 1995; 273: 289–94.
  • Pannek J, Rittenhouse HG, Evans CL, et al. Molecular forms of prostate-specific antigen and human kallikrein 2 (hK2) in urine are not clinically useful for early detection and staging of prostate cancer. Urology 1997; 50: 715–21.
  • Irani J, Millet C, Levillain P, et al. Serum-to-urinary prostate-specific antigen ratio: A potential means of distinguishing benign prostatic hyperplasia from prostate cancer. Eur Urol 1996; 29: 407–12.
  • Irani J, Millet C, Levillain P, et al. Serum-to-urinary prostate specific antigen ratio: Its impact in distinguishing prostate cancer when serum prostate specific antigen level is 4 to 10 ng/ml. J Urol 1997; 157: 185–8.
  • Kerlikowski K, Grady D, Barclay J, et al. Positive predictive value of screening mammography by age and family history of breast cancer. JAMA 1993; 270: 2444–50.
  • Partin AW, Carter HB. The use of prostate-specific antigen and free/total prostate-specific antigen in the diagnosis of localized prostate cancer. Urol Clin North Am 1996; 23: 531–40.
  • Pound CR, Partin AW Epstein JI. PSA following anatomical radical retropubic prostatectomy: Patterns of recurrence and cancer control. Urol Clin North Am 1997; 24: 395.
  • Epstein JI, Walsh PC, Carmichael M, et al. Pathologic and clinical findings to predict tumor extent of non-palpable (stage T1c) prostate cancer. JAMA 1994; 271: 368–74.
  • Luderer AA, Chen Y-T, Soriano TF, et al. Measurement of the proportion of free to total prostate-specific antigen improves diagnostic performance of prostate-specific antigen in the diagnostic gray zone of total prostate-specific antigen. Urology 1995; 46: 187–94.
  • Catalona WJ, Smith DS, Wolfert RL, et al. Evaluation of percentage of free serum prostate-specific antigen to improve specificity of prostate cancer screening. JAMA 1995; 274: 1214–20.
  • Zhang P, Wilson LW Wu JT. Measurement of free PSA: Assay characteristics and clinical applications. Clin Chem 1996; 42: S265 (abstract)
  • Wang TJ, Linton HJ, Payne J, et al. Development of monoclonal antibodies specific for the PSA-ACT complex and their incorporation into an immunoas-say. Clin Chem 1997; 43: S225 (abstract).
  • Wang TJ, Linton HJ, Payne J, et al. Clinical utility of a complexed PSA immunoassay with a specific monoclonal antibody to PSA-ACT. J Urol 1997; 157: 147 (abstract).
  • Stieber P, Schmeller N, Reiter W, et al. Is PSA-ACT superior to total PSA in prostate cancer? Tumour Biol 1997; 18 (52): 28 (abstract).
  • Björk T, Piironen T, Pettersson K, et al. Comparison of analysis of the different prostate-specific antigen forms in serum for detection of clinically localized prostate cancer. Urology 1996; 48: 882–8.
  • Prestigiacomo AF, Chichibu K, Kuroe K, et al. Serum PSA assays should be based on PSA-ACT complex to improve the specificity for diagnosing benign prostatic hyperlasia (BPH). J Urol 1997; 157 Suppl: 366 (abstract).
  • Allard WJ, Zhou Z Yeung KK. Novel immunoassay for the measurement of complexed prostate-specific antigen in serum. Clin Chem 1998; 44: 1216–23.
  • Becker C, Fernlund P, Lilja H, et al. Percent human glandular kallikrein 2 (hK2) to free PSA in serum in the detection of prostate cancer and discrimination of tumor grade. Urology 1998; 159: 178 (anstract).
  • Gao X, Porter AT, Grignon DJ, et al. Diagnostic and prognostic markers for human prostate cancer. Prostate 1997; 31: 264–81.
  • Pannek J, Subong ENP, Jones KA, et al. The role of free/total prostate-specific antigen ratio in the prediction of final pathologic stage for men with clinically localized prostate cancer. Urology 1996; 48: 51–4.
  • Graefen M, Hammerer P Henke P. Percentage of free PSA does not correlate with pathological outcome. J Urol 1996; 155: 370A (abstract).
  • Hendricks WH, England BG, Giacherio DA. Free to total PSA ratio does not predict extraprostatic spread of prostatic adenocarcinoma. J Urol 1996; 155: 369A.
  • Partin AW, Piantadosi S, Subong ENP, et al. Clearance rate of serum-free and total PSA following radical retropubic prostatectomy. Prostate 1996; Suppl: 7: 35–9.
  • Tchetgen MB, Oesterling JE. The effect of prostatitis, urinary retention, ejaculation, and ambulation on the serum prostate-specific antigen concentration. Urol Clin North Am 1997; 24: 283–91.
  • Deliveliotis C, Alivizatos G Stavropoulos NJ. Influence of digital examination, cystoscopy, transrectal ultrasonography and needle biopsy on the concentration of prostate-specific antigen. Urol Int 1994; 53: 186–90.
  • Takayama TK, Kreiger JN True LD. Recurrent prostate cancer despite undetect-able PSA. J Urol 1992; 148: 1541–2.
  • Oefelein MG, Smith N, Carter M, et al. The incidence of prostate cancer progression with undetectable serum prostate specific antigen in a series of 394 radical prostatectomies. J Urol 1995; 154: 2128–31.
  • Partin AW, Pearson JD Landis PK. Evaluation of serum prostate-specific antigen velocity after radical prostatectomy to distinguish local recurrence from distant metastases. Urology 1994; 43: 649–59.
  • Cox J, Grignon DJ, Kaplan RS, et al. Consensus statement: Guidelines for PSA following radiation therapy. Int J Radiation Oncology Biol Phys 1997; 37: 1035–41.
  • Witherspoon LR, Lapeyrolerie T. Sensitive prostate specific antigen measurements identify men with long disease-free intervals and differentiate agressive from indolent cancer recurrences within two years after radical prostatectomy. J Urol 1997; 157: 1322–8.
  • Kleer E, Larson-Keller JJ Zincke H. Ability of preoperative serum prostate-specific antigen value to predict pathologic stage and DNA ploidy. Urology 1993; 41: 207–16.
  • Badalament RA, Miller MC Petter PA. An algorithm for predicting non-organ-confined prostate cancer using the results obtained from sextant core biopsies with prostate-specific antigen level. J Urol 1996; 156: 1375–80.
  • Partin AW, Kattan MW, Subong ENP, et al. Combination of prostate-specific antigen, clinical stage, and gleason score to predict pathological stage of localized prostate cancer — a multiinstitutional update. JAMA 1997; 277: 1445–51.
  • Ornstein DK, Smith DS, Humphrey PA, et al. The effect of prostate volume, age, total prostate specific antigen level and acute inflammation on the percentage of free serum prostate specific antigen levels in men without clinically detectable prostate cancer. J Urol 1998; 159: 1234–7.
  • Barnhill SD, Stamey TA, Zhang Z, et al. The ability of the ProstAsure index to identify prostate cancer patients with low cancer volumes and a high potential for cure. J Urol 1997; 157: 241 (abstract).
  • Dranoff G, Jaffee E, Lazenby A, et al. Vaccination with irradiated tumor cells engineered to secrete murine GM-CSF stimulates potent, specific and long-lasting anti-tumor immunity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1993; 90: 3539–43.
  • Sanda MG, Ayyagari SR, Jaffee EM, et al. Demonstration of a rational strategy for human prostate cancer gene therapy. J Urol 1994; 151: 622–8.
  • Brewster SF, Simons JW. Gene therapy in urological oncology: principles, strategies and potential. Eur Urol 1994; 25: 177–82.
  • Tjoa BA, Erickson SJ, Bowes VA, et al. Follow-up evaluation of prostate cancer patients infused with autologous dendritic cells pulsed with PSMA peptides. Prostate 1997; 32: 272–8.
  • Murphy G, Tjoa B, Ragde H, et al. Phase I clinical trial: T-cell therapy for prostate cancer using autologous dendritic cells pulsed with HLA-A0201-spe-cific peptides from prostate-specific membrane antigen. Prostate 1996; 29: 371–80.
  • Blute ML. Refining the early detection and staging of prostate cancer. J Urol 1995; 154: 1401–2.
  • Rodriguez R, Schuur ER, Lim HY, et al. Targeted gene therapy by a prostate specific adenovirus in the treatment of human prostate cancer. J Urol 1997; 157: 875(abstract).
  • Bairoch A, Boeckmann B. The Swiss-prot protein-sequence data bank, recent developments. Nucleic Acids Res 1993; 21: 3093–6.
  • Barker WC, George DG, Mews H, et al. The PIR-International databases. Nucleic Acids Res 1993; 21: 3089–92.
  • Angermann A, Rahn HP, Hektor T, et al. Purification and characterization of human salivary-gland prokallikrein from recombinant baculovirus-infected insect cells. Eur J Biochem 1992; 206: 225–33.
  • Takahashi S, Irie A Miyake Y. Primary structure of human urinary prokallikrein. J Biochem 1988; 104: 22–9.
  • Pizzo SV, Mast AE, Feldman SR, et al. In vivo catabolism of a1-antichymotrypsin is mediated by the serpin receptor which binds 1-proteinase inhibitor, antithrom-bin II and heparin cofactor II. Biochim Biophys Acta 1988; 967: 158–62.
  • Diamandis EP, Yu H Sutherland DJ. Detection of prostate-specific antigen immunoreactivity in breast tumors. Breast Cancer Res Treat 1996; 32: 301–10.
  • Yu H, Diamandis EP, Levesque MA, et al. Ectopic production of prostate-specific antigen by a breast tumor metastic to the ovary. J Clin Lab Analysis 1994; 8: 251–3.
  • Zarghami N, Diamandis EP. Detection of prostate specific antigen mRNA and protein in breast tumors. Clin Chem 1996; 42: 361–6.
  • Yu H, Diamandis EP, Levesque M, et al. Prostate specific antigen in breast cancer, benign breast disease and normal breast tissue. Breast Cancer Res Treat 1996; 40: 171–8.
  • Howarth DJC, Aronson IB Diamandis EP. Immunohistochemical localization of prostate specific antigen in benign and malignant breast tissues. Br J Cancer 1997; 75: 1646–51.
  • Diamandis EP, Yu H Lopez-Otin C. Prostate specific antigen — a new constituent of breast cyst fluid. Breast Cancer Res Treat 1996; 38: 259–64.
  • Mannello F, Bocchiotti G, Bianchi G, et al. Quantification of prostate-specific antigen immunoreactivity in human breast cyst fluids. Breast Cancer Res Treat 1996; 38: 247–52.
  • Melegos DN, Yu H, Allen LC, et al. Prostate specific antigen in amniotic fluid of normal and abnormal pregnancies. Clin Chem 1996; 29: 555–62.
  • Lambert-Messerlian GM, Canick JA Melegos DN. Increased concentrations of prostate-specific antigen in maternal serum from pregnancies affected by Fetal Down Syndrome. Clin Chem 1998; 44: 205–208.
  • Levesque M, Hu H, D’Costa M, et al. Prostate-specific antigen expression by various tumors. J Clin Lab Anal 1996; 9: 123–8.
  • James GK, Pudek M, Berean KW, et al. Salivary duct carcinoma secreting prostate-specific antigen. Am J Clin Pathol 1996; 106: 242–7.
  • Giai M, Yu H, Roagna R, et al. Prostate-specific antigen in serum of women with breast cancer. Br J Cancer 1995; 72: 728–31.
  • Melegos D, Diamandis EP. Diagnostic value of molecular forms of prostate specific antigen for female breast cancer. Clin Biochem 1996; 29: 193–200.
  • Mannello F, Bianchi G Gazzanelli G. Immunoreactivity of prostate-specific antigen in plasma and saliva of healthy women. Clin Chem 1996; 42: 1110–1.
  • Filella X, Molina R, Alcover J, et al. Detection of nonprostatic PSA in serum and nonserum samples from women. Int J Cancer 1996; 68: 424–7.
  • Yu H, Diamandis EP, Levesque M, et al. Expression of the prostate-specific antigen gene by a primary ovarian carcinoma. Cancer Res 1995; 55: 1603–6.
  • Levesque M, Yu H, D’Costa M, et al. Immunoreactive prostate-specific antigen in lung tumors. J Clin Lab Anal 1995; 9: 375–9.
  • Zarghami N, Levesque M, D’Costa M, et al. Frequency of expression of prostate specific antigen mRNA in lung tumors. Am J Clin Pathol 1997; 108: 184–90.
  • Zarghami N, D’Costa M, Tsuyuki D, et al. Expression of the prostate specific antigen gene by lung tissue. Clin Cancer Res 1997; 3: 1201–6.
  • Diamandis EP, Yu H. Prostate-specific antigen and lack of specificity for prostate cells. Lancet 1995; 345: 1186.
  • Melegos DN, Yu H, Ashok M, et al. Prostate-specific antigen in female serum, a potential new marker of androgen excess. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997; 82: 777–80.
  • Tsuyuki D, Grass L Diamandis EP. Frequent detection of mutations in the 5¢ flanking region of the prostate specific antigen gene in female breast cancer. Eur J Cancer 1997; 33: 1853–6.
  • Noldus J, Chen ZX Stamey TA. Isolation and characterization of free form prostate specific antigen (f-PSA) in sera of men with prostate cancer. J Urol 1997; 158: 1606–9.
  • Qian Y, Sensibar JA, Zelner DJ, et al. Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis detects prostate-specific antigen-a1-antichymotrypsin complex in serum but not in prostatic fluid. Clin Chem 1997; 43: 352–9.
  • Espana F, Gilabert J, Estelles A, et al. Functionally active protein C inhibitor/ plasminogen activator inhibitor-3 (PCI/PAI-3) is secreted in seminal vesicles, occurs at high concentrations in human seminal plasma and complexes with prostate-specific antigen. Thromb Res 1991; 64: 309–20.
  • Bjartell A, Bjork T, Matikainen MT, et al. Production of alpha-1-antichymotrypsin by PSA-containing cells of human prostate epithelium. Urology 1993; 42: 502–10.
  • Bjork T, Bjartell A, Abrahamsson PA, et al. Alpha1-antichymotrypsin production in PSA-producing cells is common in prostate cancer but rare in benign prostatic hyperplasia. Urology 1994; 43: 427–34.
  • Christensson A, Bjork T, Nilsson O, et al. Serum prostate specific antigen complexed to alpha 1-antichymotrypsin as an indicator of prostate cancer. J Urol 1993; 150: 100–5.
  • Huber PR, Mattarelli G, Strittmatter B, et al. In vivo and in vitro complex formation of prostate specific antigen with a1-antichymotrypsin. Prostate 1995; 27: 166–75.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.