Chemistry and Biotechnology of Carotenoids

REFERENCES

• Agarwal , S. and Rao , A. V. 1998 . Tomato lycopene and low density lipoprotein oxidation: a human dietary intervention study . Lipids , 33 : 981 – 984 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aggelis , A. , John , I. , Karvouni , Z. and Grierson , D. 1997 . Characterization of two cDNA clones for mRNAs expressed during ripening of melon (Cucumis melo L) fruits . Plant Mol. Biol. , 33 : 313 – 322 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Akpapunam , M. A. 1984 . Effect of wilting, blanching and storage temperatures on ascorbic acid and total carotenoids content of some Nigerian fresh vegetables . Qualitas Plantarum Plant Foods for Human Nutrition , 34 : 177 – 180 .
   Google Scholar
• Alba , R. , Fei , Z. , Payton , P. , Liu , Y. , Moore , S. L. , Debbie , P. , Cohn , J. , D'Ascenzo , M. , Gordon , J. S. , Rose , J. K. , Martin , G. , Tanksley , S. D. , Bouzayen , M. , Jahn , M. M. and Giovannoni , J. J. 2004 . ESTs, cDNA microarrays, and gene expression profiling: tools for dissecting plant physiology and development . Plant J. , 39 : 697 – 714 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al-Babili , S. , Hugueney , P. , Schledz , M. , Welsch , R. , Frohnmeyer , H. , Laule , O. and Beyer , P. 2000 . Identification of a novel gene coding for neoxanthin synthase from Solanum tuberosum . FEBS Lett. , 485 : 168 – 172 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albrecht , M. , Takaichi , S. , Steiger , S. , Wang , Z. Y. and Sandmann , G. 2000 . Novel hydroxycarotenoids with improved antioxidative properties produced by gene combination in Escherichia coli. . Nat. Biotechnol. , 18 : 843 – 846 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Albrecht , M. , Klein , A. , Hugueney , P. , Sandmann , G. and Kuntz , M. 1995 . Molecular cloning and functional expression in E. coli of a novel plant enzyme mediating ζ-carotene desaturation . FEBS Lett. , 372 : 199 – 202 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alfonso , M. , Montoya , G. , Cases , R. , Rodriguez , R. and Picorel , R. 1994 . Core antenna complexes, CP43 and CP47, of higher plant photosystem II: Spectral properties, pigment stoichuiometry and amino acid composition . Biochem. , 33 : 10494 – 10500 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alper , H. , Jin , Y. S. , Moxley , J. F. and Stephanopoulos , G. 2005a . Identifying gene targets for the metabolic engineering of lycopene biosynthesis in Escherichia coli . Metab. Eng. , 7 : 155 – 164 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alper , H. , Miyaoku , K. and Stephanopoulos , G. 2005b . Construction of lycopene-overproducing E. coli strains by combining systematic and combinatorial gene knockout targets . Nat. Biotechnol. , 23 : 612 – 616 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alper , H. , Miyaoku , K. and Stephanopoulos , G. 2006 . Characterization of lycopene-overproducing E. coli strains in high cell density fermentations. Appl. Microbiol . Biotechnol. , 72 : 968 – 974 .
   Google Scholar
• Aluru , M. , Xu , Y. , Guo , R. , Wang , Z. , Li , S. , White , W. , Wang , K. and Rodermel , S. 2008 . Generation of transgenic maize with enhanced provitamin A content . J. Exptl. Bot. , 59 : 3551 – 3562 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson , J. M. and Chow , W. S. 2002 . Structural ans functional dynamics of plant photosystem II . Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B-Biol. Sci. , 357 : 1421 – 1430 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Anguelova , T. and Warthesen , J. 2000 . Lycopene stability in tomato powders. . J. Food Sci. , 65 : 67 – 70 .
   Google Scholar
• Araki , N. , Kusumi , K. , Masamoto , K. , Niwa , Y. and Iba , K. 2000 . Temperature-sensitive Arabidopsis mutant defective in 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate synthase within the plastid non-mevolanate pathway of isoprenoid biosynthesis . Physiol. Plant. , 108 : 19 – 24 .
   Google Scholar
• Arigoni , D. , Sagner , S. , Latzel , C. , Eisenreich , W. , Bacher , A. and Zenk , M. H. 1997 . Terpenoid biosynthesis from 1-deoxy-D-xylulose in higher plants by intramolecular skeletal rearrangement . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. , 94 : 10600 – 10605 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Armstrong , G. A. 1997 . Genetics of eubacterial carotenoid biosynthesis: A colourful tale . Annu. Rev. Microbiol. , 51 : 629 – 659 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Armstrong , G. A. , Alberti , M. , Leach , F. and Hears , J. E. 1989 . Nucleotide sequence, organization, and nature of the protein products of the carotenoid biosynthesis gene cluster of Rhodobacter capsulatus . Mol. Gen. Genetics , 216 : 254 – 268 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ausich , R. L. , Brinkhaus , F. L. , Mukharji , I. , Yarger , J. and Yen , H. B. Beta-carotene biosynthesis in genetically engineered hosts . US Patent 5656472 . 1997 .
   Google Scholar
• Ayer , J. E. , Fishwick , M. J. , Land , D. G. and Swain , T. 1964 . Off-flavour of dehydrated carrot stored in oxygen . Nature , 203 : 81 – 82 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Baloch , A. K. 1987 . Effect of sulfur dioxide and blanching on the stability of carotenoids of dehydrated carrot . J. Sci. Food Agric. , 40 : 179 – 187 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baloch , A. K. , Buckle , K. A. and Edwards , R. A. 1981 . Effect of chemical treatment on stability of dehydrated carrot . Pakistan J. Sci. Ind. Res. , 24 : 203 – 211 .
   Google Scholar
• Bao , B. and Chang , K. C. 1994 . Carrot juice color, carotenoids and nonstarchy polysaccharides as affected by processing conditions . J. Food Sci. , 59 : 1155 – 1158 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartley , G. E. and Scolnik , P. A. 1993 . cDNA cloning, expression during development and genome mapping of psy2, a second tomato gene encoding phytoene synthase . J. Biol. Chem. , 268 : 25718 – 25721 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartley , G. E. and Scolnik , P. A. 1995 . Plant carotenoids: pigments for photoprotection, visual attraction, and human health . Plant Cell , 7 : 1027 – 1038 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartley , G. E. , Scolnik , P. A. and Beyer , P. 1999 . Two Arabidopsis thaliana carotene desaturases, phytoene desaturase and ζ -carotene desaturase, expressed in Escherichia coli, catalyze a poly-cis pathway to yield pro-lycopene . Eur. J. Biochem. , 259 : 396 – 403 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bassi , R. and Caffari , S. 2000 . Lhc proteins and the regulation of photosynthetic light harvesting function by xanthophylls . Photosynth. Res. , 64 : 243 – 256 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bassi , R. , Croce , R. , Cugini , D. and Sandona , D. 1999 . Mutational analysis of a higher plant antenna protein provides identification of chromophores bound into multiple sites . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. , 96 : 10056 – 10061 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bengtsson , A. , Namutebi , A. , Larsson Alminger , M. and Svanberg , U. 2008 . Effects of various traditional processing methods on the all-trans-β-carotene content of orange-fleshed sweet potato . J. Food Compost. Anal. , 21 : 134 – 143 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beyer , P. , Kroncke , U. and Nievelstein , V. 1991 . On the mechanism of the lycopene isomerase/cyclase reaction in Narcissus pseudonarcissus L. chromoplasts . J. Biol. Chem. , 266 : 17072 – 17078 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bohne , F. and Linden , H. 2002 . Regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis genes in response to light in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii . Biochimica et Biophysica Acta , 1579 : 26 – 34 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boileau , T. W. M. , Moore , A. C. and Erdman , J. W. Jr. 1999 . “ Carotenoids and Vitamin A ” . In Antioxidant Status, Diet, Nutrition and Health , Edited by: Papas , A. M. 133 – 158 . Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press .
   Google Scholar
• Boileau , T. W. M. , Boileau , A. C. and Erdman , J. W. Jr. 2002 . Bioavailability of all-trans and all-cis isomers of lycopene . Exp. Biol. Med. , 227 : 914 – 919 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Botella-Pavia , P. and Rodriguez-Concepcion , M. 2006 . Carotenoid biotechnology in plants for nutritionally improved foods . Physiologia Plantarum , 126 : 369 – 381 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Botella-Pavia , P. , Besumbes , O. , Phillips , M. A. , Carretero-Paulet , L. , Boronat , A. and Rodrıguez-Concepcion , M. 2004 . Regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis in plants: Evidence for a key role of hydroxymethylbutenyl diphosphate reductase in controlling the supply of plastidial isoprenoid precursors . Plant J. , 40 : 188 – 199 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouvier , F. , D'Harlingue , A. , Backhaus , R. A. , Kumagai , M. H. and Camara , B. 2000 . Identification of neoxanthin synthase as a carotenoid cyclase paralog . Eur. J. Biochem. , 267 : 6346 – 6352 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bouvier , F. , D”Harlingue , A. , Hugueney , P. , Marin , E. , Marion-Poll , A. and Camara , B. 1996 . Xanthophyll biosynthesis- cloning, expression, functional reconstitution and regulation of beta-cyclohexenyl carotenoid epoxidase from pepper (Capsicum annum) . J. Biol. Chem. , 271 : 28861 – 28867 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouvier , F. , Dogbo , O. and Camara , B. 2003a . Biosynthesis of the food and cosmetic plant pigment bixin (annatto) . Science , 300 : 2089 – 2091 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouvier , F. , Hugueney , P. , D'Harlingue , A. , Kuntz , M. and Camara , B. 1994 . Xanthophyll biosynthesis in chromoplasts: isolation and molecular cloning of an enzyme catalyzing the conversion of 5, 6-epoxycarotenoid into ketocarotenoid . Plant J. , 6 : 45 – 54 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouvier , F. , Keller , Y. , D'Harlingue , A. and Camara , B. 1998 . Xanthophyll biosynthesis: molecular and functional characterization of carotenoid hydroxylases from pepper fruits (Capsicum annuum L.) . Biochim. Biophys. Acta , 1391 : 320 – 328 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bouvier , F. , Suire , C. , Mutterer , J. and Camara , B. 2003b . Oxidative remodeling of chromoplast carotenoids: Identification of the carotenoid dioxygenase CsCCD and CsZCD genes involved in Crocus secondary metabolite biogenesis . Plant Cell , 15 : 47 – 62 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bramley , P. M. 1985 . The in vitro biosynthesis of carotenoids . Adv. Lipid Res. , 21 : 243 – 279 .
   Google Scholar
• Bramley , P. M. 1997 . The regulation and genetic manipulation of carotenoid biosynthesis in tomato fruit. . Pure Appl. Chem. , 69 : 2159 – 2162 .
   Google Scholar
• Bramley , P. M. 2003 . “ The genetic enhancement of phytochemicals: the case of carotenoids ” . In Phytochemical Functional Foods , Edited by: Johnson , I. and Williamson , G. 253 – 279 . Cambridge : Woodhead Publishing Ltd .
   Google Scholar
• Bramley , P. M. , Teulieres , C. , Blain , I. , Bird , C. and Schuch , W. 1992 . Biochemical characterisation of transgenic tomato plants in which carotenoid synthesis has been inhibited through expression of antisense RNA to pTOM5 . Plant J. , 2 : 343 – 349 .
   Google Scholar
• Britton , G. 1995 . Structure and properties of carotenoids in relation to function . FASEB J. , 9 : 1551 – 1558 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , M. J. , Ferruzzi , M. G. , Nguyen , M. L. , Cooper , D. A. , Eldridge , A. L. , Schwartz , S. J. and White , W. S. 2004 . Carotenoid bioavailability is higher from salads ingested with full-fat than with fat-reduced salad dressings as measured with electrochemical detection . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 80 : 396 – 403 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , L. , Rimm , E. B. , Seddon , J. M. , Giovannucci , E. L. , Chasan-Taber , L. , Spiegelman , D. , Willettm , W. C. and Hankinson , S. E. 1999 . A prospective study of carotenoid intake and risk of cataract extraction in US men . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 70 : 517 – 524 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buckner , B. , Miguel , P. S. , Janick-Buckner , D. and Bennetzen , J. L. 1996 . The y1 gene of maize codes for phytoene synthase . Genetics , 143 : 479 – 488 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burkhardt , P. K. , Beyer , P. , Wunn , J. , Kloti , A. , Armstrong , G. A. , Schledz , M. , von Lintig , J. and Potrykus , I. 1997 . Transgenic rice (Oryza sativa) endosperm expressing daffodil (Narcissus pseudonarcissus) phytoene synthase accumulates phytoene, a key intermediate of provitamin A biosynthesis . Plant J. , 11 : 1071 – 1078 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cabassi , A. , Sandei , L. and Leoni , C. 2001 . Effects of industrial operations and storage conditions on color and carotenoids of tomato powders . Ind. Conserve , 76 : 299 – 313 .
   Google Scholar
• Caffari , S. , Croce , R. , Breton , J. and Bassi , R. 2001 . The major antenna complex of photosystem II has a xanthophylls binding site not involved in light harvesting . J. Biol. Chem. , 276 : 35924 – 35933 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Camara , B. and Dogbo , O. 1986 . Demonstration and solubilization of lycopene cyclase from Capsicum chromoplast membranes . Plant Physiol. , 80 : 172 – 174 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cano , M. P. and de Ancos , B. 1994 . Carotenoid and carotenoid ester composition of mango fruit as influezed by processing method . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 42 : 2737 – 2742 .
   Google Scholar
• Cano , M. P. and Marin , M. A. 1992 . Pigment composition and color of frozen and canned kiwi fruit slices . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 40 : 2141 – 2146 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carthew , R. W. 2001 . Gene silencing by double stranded RNA . Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. , 13 : 244 – 248 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castenmiller , J. J. M. and West , C. E. 1998 . Bioavailability and bioconversion of carotenoids . Annu. Rev. Nutr. , 18 : 19 – 38 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castenmiller , J. J. M. , West , C. E. , Linssen , J. P. H. , van het Hof , K. H. and Voragen , G. J. 1999 . The food matrix of spinach is a limiting factor in determminig the bioavailability of β-Carotene and to a lesser extent of lutein in humans . J. Nutr. , 129 : 349 – 355 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chandler , L. and Schwartz , S. J. 1988 . Isomerization and losses of trans β -carotene in sweet potatoes as affected by processing treatments . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 36 : 129 – 133 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang , C. H. and Liu , Y. C. 2007 . Study on lycopene and antioxidant contents variations in tomatoes under air-drying process . J. Food Sci. , 72 : E532 – E540 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen , B. H. and Tang , Y. C. 1998 . Processing and stability of carotenoid powder from carrot pulp waste . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 46 : 2312 – 2318 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen , B. H. , Peng , H. Y. and Chen , H. E. 1995 . Changes of carotenoids, color, and vitamin A contents during processing of carrot juice . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 43 : 1912 – 1918 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chervin , C. and Boisseau , P. 1994 . Quality maintenance of ready to eat shredded carrots by gamma irradiation . J. Food Sci. , 59 : 359 – 361 . 365
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen , J. H. , Kristal , A. R. and Stanford , J. L. 2000 . Fruit and vegetable intakes and prostate cancer risk . J. Natl. Cancer I. , 92 : 61 – 67 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cong , L. , Wang , C. , Chen , L. , Liu , H. , Yang , G. and He , G. 2009 . Expression of phytoene synthase 1 and carotene desaturase crtI genes result in an increase in the total carotenoids content in transgenic elite wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 57 : 8652 – 8660 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cookson , P. J. , Kiano , J. W. , Shipton , C. A. , Fraser , P. D. , Romer , S. , Schuch , W. , Bramley , P. M. and Pyke , K. A. 2003 . Increases in cell elongation, plastid compartment size and phytoene synthase activity underlie the phenotype of the high pigment-1 mutant of tomato . Planta , 217 : 896 – 903 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corona , V. , Aracri , B. , Kosturkova , G. , Bartley , G. E. , Pitto , L. , Giorgetti , L. , Scolnik , P. A. and Giuliano , G. 1996 . Regulation of a carotenoid biosynthesis gene promoter during plant development . Plant J. , 9 : 505 – 512 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cortes , C. , Esteve , M. J. , Rodrigo , D. , Torregrosa , F. and Frigola , A. 2006 . Changes in color and carotenoids contents during high intensity pulsed electric field treatment in orange juices . Food Chem. Toxicol. , 44 : 1932 – 1939 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cui , Z.-W. , Xu , S.-Y. and Sun , D.-W. 2004 . Effect of microwave-vacuum drying and chlorophyll retention of Chinese chive leaves . Drying Technol. , 22 : 563 – 575 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunningham , F. X. and Gantt , E. 1998 . Genes and enzymes of carotenoid biosynthesis in plants . Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. , 49 : 557 – 583 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunningham , F. X. and Gantt , E. 2001 . One ring or two? Determination of ring number in carotenoids by lycopene epsilon-cyclases . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. , 98 : 2905 – 2910 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunningham , F. X. Jr. , Chamovitz , D. , Misawa , N. , Gantt , E. and Hirschberg , J. 1993 . Cloning and functional expression in Escherichia coli of a cyanobacterial gene for lycopene cyclase, the enzyme that catalyzes the biosynthesis of β-carotene . FEBS Lett. , 328 : 130 – 138 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cuttriss , A. and Pogson , B. 2004 . “ Carotenoids ” . In Plant Pigments and their Manipulation , Edited by: Davies , K. M. 57 – 91 . Boca Raton, FL : Blackwell Publishing, CRC Press . Annual Plant Reviews, Vol. 14
   Google Scholar
• D'Ambrosio , C. , Giorio , G. , Marino , I. , Merendino , A. , Petrozza , A. , Salfi , L. , Stigliani , A. L. and Cellini , F. 2004 . Virtually complete conversion of lycopene into β -carotene in fruits of tomato plants transformed with the tomato lycopene b-cyclase (tlcy-b) cDNA . Plant Sci. , 166 : 207 – 214 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Das , A. , Yoon , S. , Lee , S. , Kim , J. , Oh , D. and Kim , S. 2007 . An update on microbial carotenoid production: application of recent metabolic engineering tools . Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. , 77 : 505 – 512 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delgado-Vargas , F. and Paredes-Lopez , O. 2003 . Natural Colorants for Food and Nutraceutical Uses , 113 – 166 . Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press .
   Google Scholar
• Demmig-Adams , B. , Gilmore , A. M. and Adams , W. W. 1996 . In vivo functions of carotenoids in higher plants . FASEB J. , 10 : 403 – 412 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deruere , J. , Romer , S. , d'Harlingue , A. , Backhaus , R. A. , Kuntz , M. and Camara , B. 1994 . Fibril assembly and carotenoid overaccumulation in chromoplasts: A model for supramolecular lipoprotein structures . Plant Cell. , 6 : 119 – 133 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Desorby , A. S. , Netto , M. F. and Labuza , T. P. 1998 . Preservation of β-carotene from carrots . Cric. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. , 38 : 381 – 396 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dewanto , V. , Wu , X. Z. , Adom , K. K. and Liu , R. H. 2002 . Thermal processing enhances the nutritional value of tomatoes by increasing total antioxidant activity . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 50 : 3010 – 3014 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dharmapuri , S. , Rosati , C. , Pallara , P. , Aquilani , R. , Bouvier , F. , Camara , B. and Giuliano , G. 2002 . Metabolic engineering of xanthophyll content in tomato fruits . FEBS Lett. , 519 : 30 – 34 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diretto , G. , Tavazza , R. , Welsch , R. , Pizzichini , D. , Mourgues , F. , Papacchioli , V. , Beyer , P. and Giuliano , G. 2006 . Metabolic engineering of potato tuber carotenoids through tuber-specific silencing of lycopene epsilon cyclase . BMC Plant Biol. , 6 : 13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diretto , G. , Welsch , R. , Tavazza , R. , Mourgues , F. , Pizzichini , D. , Beyer , P. and Giuliano , G. 2007a . Silencing of beta-carotene hydroxylase increases total carotenoid and beta-carotene levels in potato tubers . BMC Plant Biol. , 7 : 11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diretto , G. , Al-Babili , S. , Tavazza , R. , Papacchioli , V. , Beyer , P. and Giuliano , G. 2007b . Metabolic engineering of potato carotenoid content through tuber-specific overexpression of a bacterial mini-pathway . PLoS ONE , 2 ( 4 ) : e350
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dorgan , J. F. , Sowell , A. , Swanson , C. A. , Potischman , N. , Miller , R. , Schussler , N. and Stephenson , H. E. Jr. 1998 . Relationship of serum carotenoid, retinol, α -tocopherol and selenium with breast cancer risk: results from a prospective study in Columbia, Missouri (United States) . Cancer Causes Control , 9 : 89 – 97 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ducreux , L. J. , Morris , W. L. , Hedley , P. E. , Shepherd , T. , Davies , H. V. , Millam , S. and Taylor , M. A. 2005 . Metabolic engineering of high carotenoid potato tubers containing enhanced levels of b-carotene and lutein . J. Exp. Bot. , 56 : 81 – 89 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dugave , C. and Demange , L. 2003 . Cis-trans isomerization of organic molecules and biomolecules: implications and applications . Chem. Rev. , 103 : 2475 – 2532 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eichler , O. , Sies , H. and Stahl , W. 2002 . Divergent optimum levels of lycopene, β -carotene and lutein protecting against UV B irradiation in human fibroblasts . Photochem. Photobiol. , 75 : 503 – 506 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eisenreich , W. , Bacher , A. , Arigoni , D. and Rohdich , F. 2004 . Biosynthesis of isoprenoids via the non-mevalonate pathway . Cell Mol. Life Sci. , 61 : 1401 – 1426 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eisenreich , W. , Rohdich , F. and Bacher , A. 2001 . Deoxylulose phosphate pathway to terpenoids . Trends Plant Sci. , 6 : 78 – 84 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Enfissi , E. M. A. , Fraser , P. D. , Lois , L.-M. , Boronat , A. , Schuch , W. and Bramley , P. M. 2005 . Metabolic engineering of the mevalonate and non-mevalonate isopentenyl diphosphate-forming pathways for the production of health-promoting isoprenoids in tomato . Plant Biotechnol. , 3 : 17 – 27 .
   Google Scholar
• Fei , Z. , Tang , X. , Alba , R. M. , White , J. A. , Ronning , C. M. , Martin , G. B. , Tanksley , S. D. and Giovannoni , J. J. 2004 . Comprehensive EST analysis of tomato and comparative genomics of fruit ripening . Plant J. , 40 : 47 – 59 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fester , T. , Maier , W. and Strack , D. 1999 . Accumulation of secondary compounds in barley and wheat roots in response to inoculation with an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus and co-inoculation with rhizosphere bacteria . Mycorrhiza , 8 : 241 – 246 .
   Google Scholar
• Fontes , M. R. , Ruiz-Vazquez and Murillo , F. J. 1993 . Growth phase dependence of the activation of a bacterial gene for carotenoid synthesis by blue light . EMBO J. , 12 : 1265 – 1275 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Foy , C. J. , Passmore , A. P. , Vahidassr , M. D. , Young , I. S. and Lawson , J. T. 1999 . Plasma chain-breaking antioxidants in Alzheimer's disease, vascular dementia and Parkinson's disease . QJM , 92 : 39 – 45 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fraser , P. D. and Bramley , P. M. 2004 . The biosynthesis and nutritional uses of carotenoids . Prog. Lipid Res. , 43 : 228 – 265 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fraser , P. D. , Romer , S. , Shipton , C. A. , Mills , P. B. , Kiano , J. W. , Misawa , N. , Drake , R. G. , Schuch , W. and Bramley , P. M. 2002 . Evaluation of transgenic tomato plants expressing an additional phytoene synthase in a fruit-specific manner . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. , 99 : 1092 – 1097 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fraser , P. D. , Schuch , W. and Bramley , P. M. 2000 . Phytoene synthase from tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) chloroplasts-partial purification and biochemical properties . Planta , 211 : 361 – 369 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fraser , P. D. , Truesdale , R. M. , Bird , C. R. , Schuch , W. and Bramley , P. M. 1994 . Carotenoid biosynthesis during tomato fruit development: Evidence for tissue-specific gene expression . Plant Physiol. , 105 : 405 – 413 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fray , R. G. , Wallace , A. , Fraser , P. D. , Valero , D. , Hedden , P. , Bramley , P. M. and Grierson , D. 1995 . Constitutive expression of a fruit phytoene synthase gene in transgenic tomatoes causes dwarfism by redirecting metabolites from the gibberellin pathway . Plant J. , 8 : 693 – 701 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuhramn , B. , Elis , A. and Aviram , M. 1997 . Hypocholesterolemic effect of lycopene and β -carotene is related to suppression of cholesterol synthesis and augmentation of LDL receptor activity in macrophage . Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. , 233 : 658 – 662 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fujisawa , M. , Watanabe , M. , Choi , S. K. , Teramota , M. , Ohyama , K. and Misawa , N. 2008 . Enrichment of carotenoids in flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) by metabolic engineering with introduction of bacterial phytoene synthase gene crt B . J. Biosci. Bioeng. , 105 : 636 – 641 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gallagher , C. E. , Matthews , P. D. , Li , F. and Wurtzel , E. T. 2004 . Gene duplication in the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway preceded evolution of grasses . Plant Physiol. , 135 : 1776 – 1783 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gann , P. H. , Ma , J. , Giovannucci , E. , Willett , W. , Sacks , F. M. , Hennekens , C. H. and Stampfer , M. J. 1999 . Lower prostate cancer risk in men with elevated plasma lycopene levels: Results of a prospective analysis . Cancer Res. , 59 : 1225 – 1230 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia , A. F. , Butz , P. , Bognar , A. and Tauscher , B. 2001 . Antioxidant capacity, nutrient content and sensory quality of orange juice and an orange-lemon-carrot juice product after high pressure treatment and storage in different packaging . European Food Res. Echnol. , 213 : 290 – 296 .
   Google Scholar
• Gayathri , G. N. , Platel , K. , Prakash , J. and Srinivasan , K. 2004 . Influence of antioxidant spices on the retention of b-carotene in vegetables during domestic cooking processes . Food Chem. , 84 : 35 – 43 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerjets , T. and Sandmann , G. 2006 . Potato tuber as a transgenic production system for keto carotenoids . Carotenoid Sci. , 9 : 3137
   Google Scholar
• Gerjets , T. , Sandmann , M. , Zhu , C. and Sandmann , G. 2007 . Metabolic engineering of ketocarotenoid biosynthesis in leaves and flowers of tobacco species . Biotechnol. J. , 2 : 1263 – 1269 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Giovannucci , E. 1999 . Tomatoes, tomato-based products, lycopene, and cancer: Review of the epidemiologic literature . J. Natl. Cancer Inst. , 91 : 317 – 331 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giovannucci , E. , Ascherio , A. , Rimm , E. B. , Stampfer , M. J. , Colditz , G. A. and Willett , W. C. 1995 . Intake of carotenoid and retinol in relation to risk of prostate cancer . J. Natl. Cancer Inst. , 87 : 1767 – 1776 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giuliano , G. , Bartley , G. E. and Scolnik , P. A. 1993 . Regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis during tomato development . Plant Cell , 5 : 379 – 387 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giuliano , G. , Tavazza , R. , Diretto , G. , Beyer , P. and Taylor , M. A. 2008 . Metabolic engineering of carotenoid biosynthesis in plants . Trends Biotechnol. , 26 : 139 – 145 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gody , H. T. and Rodriguez-Amaya , D. B. 1987 . Changes in individual carotenoids on processing and storage of mango (Mangifera indica) slices and puree . Intl. J. Food Sci. Technol. , 25 : 451 – 460 .
   Google Scholar
• Goldman , M. , Horev , B. and Saguy , I. 1983 . Decoloration of β -carotene in model systems simulating dehydrated foods. Mechanism and kinetic principles . J. Food Sci. , 48 : 751 – 754 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gollnick , H. P. M. , Hopfenmuller , W. , Hemmes , C. , Chun , S. , Sundermeier , K. and Biesalski , H. K. 1996 . Synthetic β-carotene plus topical UV sunscreen are an optimal protection against harmful effects of natural UV sunlight: results of Berlin-Eilath survey . Eur. J. Dermatol. , 6 : 200 – 205 .
   Google Scholar
• Gomez , M. I. 1981 . Carotene content of some green leafy vegetables of Kenya and effects of dehydrated and storage on carotene retention . J. Plant Foods , 3 : 231 – 244 .
   Google Scholar
• Goula , A. M. , Nikas , V. A. , Chatzitakis , P. C. and Adamopoulos , K. G. 2006 . Prediction of lycopene degradation during a drying process of tomato pulp . J. Food Eng. , 74 : 27 – 46 .
   Google Scholar
• Gregory , J. F. 1996 . “ Vitamins ” . In Food Chemistry , Edited by: Fennema , O. R. 532 – 616 . New York : Marcel Dekker .
   Google Scholar
• Grumbach , K. H. and Lichtenthaler , H. K. 1982 . Chloroplast pigments and their biosynthesis in relation to light intensity . Photochem. Photobiol. , 35 : 209 – 212 .
   Google Scholar
• Grunewald , K. , Eckert , M. , Hirschberg , J. and Hagen , C. 2000 . Phytoene desaturase is localized exclusively in the chloroplast and upregulated at the mRNA level during accumulation of secondary carotenoids in Haematoccus pluvialis (Volvocales, Chlorophyceae) . Plant Physiol. , 122 : 1261 – 1268 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grunewald , K. , Hirschberg , J. and Hagen , C. 2001 . Ketocarotenoid Biosynthesis Outside of Plastids in the Unicellular Green Alga . Haematococcus pluvialis. J. Biol. Chem. , 276 : 6023 – 6029 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hackett , M. M. , Lee , J. H. , Francis , D. and Schwartz , S. J. 2004 . Thermal stability and isomerization of lycopene in tomato oleoresins from different varieties . J. Food Sci. , 69 : 536 – 541 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hadley , C. W. , Clinton , S. K. and Schwartz , S. J. 2003 . The consumption of processed tomato products enhances plasma lycopene concentration in association with a reduced lipoprotein sensitivity to oxidative damage . J. Nutr. , 133 : 727 – 732 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanley , J. , Deligiannakis , Y. , Pascal , A. , Faller , P. and Rutherford , A. W. 1999 . Carotenoid oxidation in photosystem II . Biochemistry , 38 : 8189 – 8195 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hauptmann , R. , Eschenfeldt , W. H. , English , J. and Brinkhaus , F. L. Enhanced carotenoid accumulation in storage organs of genetically engineered plants . US Patent 5618988 . 1997 .
   Google Scholar
• Hiranvarachat , B. , Suvarnakuta , P. and Devahastin , S. 2008 . Isomerization kinetics and antioxidant activities of β-carotene in carrots undergoing different drying techniques and conditions . Food Chem. , 107 : 1538 – 1546 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirschberg , J. 1998 . “ Molecular biology of carotenoid biosynthesis ” . In Biosynthesis and Metabolism , Edited by: Britton , G. , Liaaen-Jensen , S. and Pfander , H. Vol. 3 , 149 – 194 . Basel, Switzetrland : Birkhauser Verlag .
   Google Scholar
• Hirschberg , J. 2001 . Carotenoid biosynthesis in flowering plants . Curr. Opin. Plant Biol. , 4 : 210 – 218 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes , D. A. , Wright , A. J. , Finglas , P. M. , Peerless , A. C. , Bailey , A. L. , Astley , S. B. , Pinder , A. C. and Southon , S. 1997 . The effect of β-carotene supplementation on the immune function of blood monocytes from healthy male nonsmokers . J. Lab. Clin. Med. , 129 : 309 – 317 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hugueney , P. , Bouvier , F. , Badillo , A. , Quennemet , J. , d'Harlingue , A. and Camara , B. 1996 . Developmental and stress regulation of gene expression for plastid and cytosolic isoprenoid pathways in pepper fruits . Plant Physiol. , 111 : 619 – 626 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hugueney , P. , Römer , S. , Kuntz , M. and Camara , B. 1992 . Characterization and molecular cloning of a flavoprotein catalyzing the synthesis of phytofluene and zeta-carotene in Capsicum chromoplasts . Eur. J. Biochem. , 209 : 399 – 407 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hundle , B. S. , O'Brien , D. A. , Beyer , P. , Kleinig , H. and Hearst , J. E. 1993 . In vitro expression and activity of lycopene cyclase and β-carotene hydroxylase from Erwinia herbicola . FEBS Lett. , 315 : 329 – 334 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ikoma , Y. , Komatsu , A. , Kita , M. , Ogawa , K. , Omura , M. , Yano , M. and Moriguchi , T. 2001 . Expression of a phytoene synthase gene and characteristic carotenoid accumulation during citrus fruit development . Physiol. Plant , 111 : 232 – 238 .
   Google Scholar
• Isaacson , T. , Ohad , I. , Beyer , P. and Hirschberg , J. 2004 . Analysis in vitro of the enzyme CRTISO establishes a poly-cis-carotenoid biosynthesis pathway in plants . Plant Physiol. , 136 : 4246 – 4255 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ishimi , Y. , Ohmura , M. , Wang , X. , Yamaguchi , M. and Ikegami , S. 1999 . Inhibition by carotenoids and retinoic acid of osteoclast-like cell formation induced by bone-resorbing agents in vitro . J. Clin. Biochem. Nutr. , 27 : 113 – 122 .
   Google Scholar
• Jackson , M. J. 1997 . The assessment of bioavailability of micronutrients: Introduction . Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. , 51 : S1 – S2 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jansson , S. 1999 . A guide to the Lhc genes and their relatives in Arabidopsis . Trends Plant Sci. , 4 : 236 – 240 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jayaraj , J. , Delvin , R. and Punja , Z. 2008 . Metabolic engineering of novel ketocarotenoid production in carrot plants . Transgenic Res. , 17 : 489 – 501 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jayaraman , K. S. , Dasgupta , D. K. and Babu-Rao , N. 1991 . Quality characteristics of some vegetables dried by direct and indirect sun drying . Indian Food Packer , 45 : 16 – 23 .
   Google Scholar
• Jenkins , J. and MacKinney , G. 1995 . Carotenoids of the apricot tomato and its hybrids with yellow and tangerine . Genetics , 40 : 715 – 720 .
   Google Scholar
• Josse , E. M. , Simkin , A. J. , Gaffe , J. , Laboure , A. M. , Kuntz , M. and Carol , P. 2000 . A plastid terminal oxidase associated with carotenoid desaturation during chromoplast differentiation . Plant Physiol. , 123 : 1427 – 1436 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joyard , J. , Teyssier , E. , Miege , C. , berny-Seigneurin , D. , Marechal , E. , Block , M. A. , Dorne , A. J. , Rolland , N. , Ajlani , G. and Douce , R. 1998 . The biochemical machinery of plastid envelope membranes . Plant Physiol. , 118 : 715 – 723 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Julliard , J. H. 1992 . Biosynthesis of the pyridoxal ring (vitamin B6) in higher plant chloroplasts and its relationship with the biosynthesis of the thiazole ring (vitamin B1) . C. R. Academic Series III , 314 : 285 – 290 .
   Google Scholar
• Julliard , J. H. and Douce , R. 1991 . Biosynthesis of the thiazole moiety of thiamin (vitamin B1) in higher plant chloroplasts . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. , 88 : 2042 – 2045 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalpalathica , P. V. M. , Nanjudaswamy , A. M. , Dhanaraj , S. and Patwardhan , M. V. 1988 . Storage studies on canned strained baby foods based on carrots and green peas . J. Food Sci. Technol. (India) , 25 : 241 – 246 .
   Google Scholar
• Kaminski , E. , Wasowicz , E. , Zawirska , R. and Wower , M. 1986 . The effect of drying and storage of dried carrot on sensory characteristics and volatile constituents . Nahrung , 30 : 819 – 828 .
   Google Scholar
• Kandlakunta , B. , Rajendran , A. and Thingnganing , L. 2008 . Carotene content of some common (cereals, pulses, vegetables, spices and condiments) and unconventional sources of plant origin . Food Chem. , 106 : 85 – 89 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karas , M. , Amir , H. , Fishman , D. , Danilenko , M. , Segal , S. , Nahum , A. , Koifmann , A. , Giat , Y. , Levy , J. and Sharoni , Y. 2000 . Lycopene interferes with cell cycle progression and insulin-like growth factor I signaling in mammary cancer cells . Nutr. Cancer. , 36 : 101 – 111 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karvouni , Z. , John , I. , Taylor , J. E. , Watson , C. F. , Turner , A. J. and Grierson , D. 1995 . Isolation and characterization of a melon cDNA clone encoding phytoene synthase . Plant Mol. Biol. , 27 : 1153 – 1162 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kasahara , H. , Hanada , A. , Kuzuyama , T. , Takagi , M. , Kamiya , J. and Yamaguchi , S. 2002 . Contribution of the mevalonate and methylerythritol phosphate pathways to the biosynthesis of gibberellins in Arabidopsis . J. Biol. Chem. , 277 : 45188 – 45194 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Khachik , F. , Beecher , G. R. and Whittaker , N. F. 1986 . Separation, identification and quantification of major carotenoids and chlorophyll constituents in extracts of several green vegetables by liquid chromatography . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 34 : 603 – 616 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khachik , F. , Goli , M. B. , Beecher , G. R. , Holden , J. , Lusby , W. R. , Tenorio , M. D. and Barrera , M. R. 1992 . Effect of food preparation on qualitative and quantitative distribution of major carotenoid constituents of tomatoes and several green vegetables . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 40 : 390 – 398 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khachik , F. , Carvallo , L. , Bernstein , P. S. , Muir , G. J. , Zhao , D. Y. and Katz , N. B. 2002 . Chemistry, distribution, and metabolism of tomato carotenoids and their impact on human health . Exp. Biol. Med. , 227 : 845 – 851 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kidmose , U. , Yang , R. -Y. , Thilsted , S. H. , Christensen , L. P. and Brandt , K. 2006 . Content of carotenoids in commonly consumed Asian vegetables and stability and extractability during frying . J. Food Compos. Anal. , 19 : 562 – 571 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim , L. , Rao , A. V. and Rao , L. G. 2003 . Lycopene II—Effect on osteoblasts: the caroteroid lycopene stimulates cell proliferation and alkaline phosphatase activity of SaOS-2 cells . J. Med. Food. , 6 : 79 – 86 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kim , Y.-N. , Giraud , D. W. and Driskell , J. A. 2007 . Tocopherol and carotenoid contents of selected Korean fruits and vegetables . J. Food Compos. Anal. , 20 : 458 – 465 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kobayashi , M. and Sakamoto , Y. 1999 . Singlet oxygen quenching ability of astaxanthin esters from the green alga Haematococcus pluvialis . Biotechnol. Lett. , 21 : 265 – 269 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kohlmeier , L. , Kark , J. D. , Gomez-Garcia , E , Martin , B. C. , Steck , S. E. , Kardinaal , A. F. M. , Ringstad , J. , Thamm , M. , Masaev , V. , Riemersma , R. , Martin-Moreno , J. M. , Huttunen , J. K. and Kok , F. J. 1997 . Lycopene and myocardial infarction risk in the EURAMIC study . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 146 : 618 – 626 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kohlmeier , L. and Hastings , S. B. 1995 . Epidemiologic evidence of a role of carotenoids in cardiovascular disease prevention . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 62 ( Suppl ) : 1370S – 1376S .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kotake-Nara , E. , Kushiro , M. , Zhang , M. , Sugawara , T. , Miyashita , K. and Nagao , A. 2001 . Carotenoids affect proliferation of human prostate cancer cells . J. Nutr. , 131 : 3303 – 3306 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krinsky , N. and Yeum , K. 2003 . Carotenoid- radical interactions . Biochem. Bioph. Res. Co. , 305 : 754 – 760 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krinsky , N. I. 1998 . The antioxidant and biological properties of carotenoids . Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences , 854 : 443 – 447 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuhlbrandt , W. 1994 . Structure and function of the plant light harvesting complex LCH II . Curr. Opin. Struct. Biol. , 4 : 519 – 528 .
   Google Scholar
• Kuntz , R. , Romer , S. , Hugueney , P. , Weil , J. H. , Schantz , R. and Camara , B. 1992 . Identification of a cDNA for the plastid-located geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate synthase from Capsicum annuum: correlative increase in enzyme activity and transcript leve1 during fruit ripening . Plant J. , 2 : 25 – 34 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lakshminarayana , R. , Raju , M. , Krishnakantha , T. P. and Baskaran , V. 2005 . Determination of major carotenoids in a few Indian leafy vegetables by High-performance liquid chromatography . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 53 : 2638 – 2642 .
   Google Scholar
• Lakshminarayana , R. , Raju , M. , Krishnakantha , T. P. and Baskaran , V. 2007 . Lutein and zeaxanthin in leafy greens and their bioavailability: Olive oil influences the absorption of dietary lutein and its accumulation in adult rats . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 55 : 6395 – 6400 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Landrum , J. T. and Bone , A. R. 2001 . Lutein, zeaxanthin, and the macular pigment . Arch. Biochem. Biophys. , 385 : 28 – 40 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lange , B. M. and Croteau , R. 1999 . Isoprenoid biosynthesis via a mevalonate independent pathway in plants: cloning and heterologous expression of 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate reductoisomerase from peppermint . Arch. Biochem. Biophys. , 365 : 170 – 174 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lavelli , V. , Hippeli , S. , Peri , C. and Elstner , E. F. 1999 . Evaluation of radical scavenging activity of fresh and air-dried tomatoes by three model reactions . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 47 : 3826 – 3831 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee , C. Y. 1986 . Changes in carotenoid content of carrots during growth and post harvest storage . Food Chem. , 20 : 285 – 293 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee , P. C. , Momen , A. Z. R. , Mijts , B. N. and Schmidt-Dannert , C. 2003 . Biosynthesis of structurally novel carotenoids in Escherichia coli . Chem. Biol. , 10 : 453 – 462 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lefebvre , V. , Kuntz , M. , Camara , B. and Palloix , A. 1998 . The capsanthin-capsorubin synthase gene: a candidate gene for the y locus controlling the red fruit color in pepper . Plant Mol. Biol. , 36 : 785 – 789 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leoni , C. , Bertholin , G. , Giovanelli , G. and Van Boekel , T. 2001 . The White Book on Antioxidants in Tomatoes and Tomato Products and their Health Benefits , Edited by: Grolier , P. , Leoni , C. , Gerber , M. and Bilton , R. 2 – 47 . Amitom : Avignon .
   Google Scholar
• Leth , T. 1986 . Changes in nutrients during prolonged storage of vegetables . Publication, Statens Levendsmiddelinstitut , 126 : 24 – 28 .
   Google Scholar
• Li , L. , Paolillo , D. J. , Parthasarathy , M. V. , DiMuzio , E. M. and Garvin , D. F. 2001 . A novel gene mutation that confers abnormal patterns of β -carotene accumulation in cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis) . Plant J. , 26 : 59 – 67 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lichtenthaler , H. K. 1999 . The 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate pathway of isoprenoid biosynthesis in plants . Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. , 50 : 47 – 65 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lila , M. N. 2004 . “ Plant pigments and human health ” . In Plant Pigments and their Manipulation , Edited by: Davies , K. M. 248 – 274 . Boca Raton, FL : Blackwell Publishing, CRC Press . Annual Plant Reviews, Vol. 14
   Google Scholar
• Lindgren , L. O. , Stalberg , K. G. and Hoglund , A. S. 2003 . Seed-specific overexpression of an endogenous Arabidopsis phytoene synthase gene results in delayed germination and increased levels of carotenoids, chlorophyll, abscisic acid . Plant Physiol. , 132 : 779 – 785 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu , Y. S. , Gur , A. , Ronen , G. , Causse , M. , Damidaux , R. , Buret , M. , Hirschberg , J. and Zamir , D. 2003 . There is more to tomato fruit color than candidate carotenoid genes . Plant Biotechnol. J. , 1 : 195 – 208 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu , Y. S. , Roof , S. , Ye , Z. , Barry , C. , Tuinen , A. V. , Vrebalov , J. , Bowler , C. and Giovannoni , J. 2004 . Manipulation of light signal transduction as a means of modifying fruit nutritional quality in tomato . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. , 101 : 9897 – 9902 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Livny , O. , Reifen , R. , Levy , I. , Madar , Z. , Faulks , R. , Southon , S. and Schwartz , B. 2003 . β-carotene bioavailability from differently processed carrot meals in human ileostomy volunteers . Eur. J. Nutr. , 42 : 338 – 345 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lois , L. M. , Rodriguez-Concepcion , M. , Gallego , F. , Campos , N. and Boronat , A. 2000 . Carotenoid biosynthesis during tomato fruit development: Regulatory role of 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate synthase . Plant J. , 22 : 503 – 516 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lokstein , H. , Tian , L. , Polle , J. E. W. and Dellapenna , D. 2002 . Xanthophyll biosynthetic mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana: altered nonphotochemical quenching of chlorophyll fluoscence is due to changes in photosystem II antenna size and stability . Biochim. Biophy. Acta-Bioenerg. , 1553 : 309 – 319 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lotan , T. and Hirschberg , J. 1995 . Cloning and expression in Escherichia coli of the gene encoding b- C- 4- oxygenase that converts β-carotene to the ketocarotenoid canthaxanthin in . Haematococcus pluvialis. FEBS Lett. , 364 : 125 – 128 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luo , R. and Wurtzel , E. T. 1999 . A maize cDNA encoding zeta carotene desaturase . Plant Physiol. , 120 : 1206 – 1207 .
   Google Scholar
• Maeda , E. E. and Salunkhe , D. K. 1981 . Retention of ascorbic acid and total carotene in solar dried vegetables . J. Food Sci. , 46 : 1288 – 1290 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mann , V. , Harker , M. , Pecker , I. and Hirschberg , J. 2000 . Metabolic engineering of astaxanthin production in tobacco flowers . Nat. Biotechnol. , 18 : 888 – 892 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maoka , T. , Mochida , K. , Kozuka , M. , Ito , Y. , Fujiwara , Y. , Hashimoto , K. , Enjo , F. , Ogata , M. , Nobukunic , Y. , Tokudac , H. and Nishino , H. 2001 . Cancer chemopreventive activity of carotenoids in the fruits of red paprika Capsicum annuum L . Cancer Lett. , 172 : 103 – 109 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin , K. R. , Failla , M. L. and Smith , J. C. 1996 . β-Carotene and lutein protect HepG2 human liver cells against oxidant-induced damage . J. Nutr. , 126 : 2098 – 2106 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marx , M. , Stuparic , M. , Schieber , A. and Carle , R. 2003 . Effects of thermal processing on trans-cis-isomerization of β -carotene in carrot juices and carotene-containing preparations . Food Chem. , 83 : 609 – 617 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayeaux , M. , Xu , Z. , King , J. M. and Prinyawiwatkul , W. 2006 . Effects of Cooking Conditions on the Lycopene Content in Tomatoes . J. Food Sci. , 71 : C461 – C464 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGarvey , D. J. and Croteau , R. 1995 . Terpenoid metabolism . Plant Cell , 7 : 1015 – 1026 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mehta , R. A. , Cassol , T. , Li , N. , Ali , N. , Handa , A. K. and Mattoo , A. K. 2002 . Engineered polyamine accumulation in tomato enhances phytonutrient content, juicy quality and vine life . Nat. Biotechnol. , 20 : 613 – 618 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milicua , J. C. G. , Juarros , J. L. , Delas Rivas , J. , Ibarrondo , J. and Gomez , R. 1991 . Isolation of a yellow carotenoprotein from carrot . Phytochem. , 30 : 1535 – 1537 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mills , J. P. , Tumuhimbise , G. A. , Jamil , K. M. , Thakkar , S. K. , Failla , M. L. and Tanumihardjo , S. A. 2009 . Sweet Potato β-Carotene bioefficacy is enhanced by dietary fat and not reduced by soluble fiber intake in Mongolian Gerbils . J. Nutr. , 139 : 44 – 50 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Minguez , M. I. and Galan , J. M. 1995 . Kinetics of decoloring of carotenoid pigments . J. Sci. Food Agric. , 67 : 153 – 161 .
   Google Scholar
• Minguez-Mosquera , M. I. and Hornero-Mendez , D. 1994 . Comparative Study of the Effect of Paprika Processing on the carotenoids in peppers (Capsicum annuum) of the Bola Agridulce varieties . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 42 : 1555 – 1554 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Misawa , N. and Shimada , H. 1998 . Metabolic engineering for the production of carotenoids in non-carotenogenic bacteria and yeasts . J. Biotechnol. , 59 : 169 – 181 .
   Google Scholar
• Misawa , N. , Nakagawa , M. , Kobayashi , K. , Yamano , S. , Izawa , Y. , Nakamura , K. and Harashima , K. 1990 . Elucidation of the Erwinia uredevora carotenoid biosynthetic pathway by functional analysis of gene products expressed in Escherichia coli . J. Bacteriol. , 172 : 6704 – 6712 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moehs , C. P. , Tian , L. , Osteryoung , K. W. and DellaPenna , D. 2001 . Analysis of carotenoid biosynthetic gene expression during marigold petal development . Plant Mol. Biol. , 45 : 281 – 293 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohamed , S. and Hussein , R. J. 1994 . Effect of low temperature blanching, cysteine-HCl, N-acetyl-L-cysteine, Na metabisulphite and drying temperatures on the firmness and nutrient content of dried carrots. J . Food Process. Preserv. , 18 : 343 – 348 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moreno , F. , S-Wu , T. , Naves , M. , Silveira , E. , Oloris , S. , da Costa , M. , Dagli , M. and Ong , T. 2002 . Inhibitory effects of beta-carotene and vitamin A during the progression phase of hepatocarcinogenesis involve inhibition of cell proliferation but not alterations in DNA methylation . Nutr. Cancer. , 44 : 80 – 88 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris , W. L. , Ducreux , L. J. M. , Fraser , P. D. , Millam , S. and Taylor , M. A. 2006a . Engineering ketocarotenoid biosynthesis in potato tubers . Metab. Eng. , 8 : 253 – 263 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris , W. L. , Ducreux , L. J. M. , Hedden , P. , Millam , S. and Taylor , M. A. 2006b . Overexpression of a bacterial 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate synthase gene in potato tubers perturbs the isoprenoid metabolic network: implications for the control of the tuber life cycle . J. Exp. Bot. , 57 : 3007 – 3018 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris , W. L. , Ducreux , L. , Griffiths , W. , Stewart , D. , Davies , H. V. and Taylor , M. A. 2004 . Carotenogenesis during tuber development and storage in potato . J. Exp. Bot. , 55 : 975 – 982 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagao , A. , During , A. , Hoshina , C. , Terao , J. and Olson , J. A. 1997 . Stoichiometric conversion of all trans-β-carotene to retinal by pig intestinal extract . Arch. Biochem. Biophys. , 328 : 57 – 63 .
   Google Scholar
• Nagasawa , H. , Mitamura , T. , Sakamoto , S. and Yamamoto , K. 1995 . Effects of lycopene on spontaneous mammary tumour development in SHN virgin mice . Anticancer Res. , 15 : 1173 – 1178 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagra , S. A. and Khan , S. 1988 . Vitamin A (β-carotene) losses in Pakistani cooking . J. Sci. Food Agric. , 46 : 249 – 251 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nahum , A. , Hirsch , K. , Danilenko , M. , Watts , C. K. W. , Prall , O. W. J. , Levy , J. and Sharoni , Y. 2001 . Lycopene inhibition of cell cycle progression in BCA and endometrial cells . Oncogene , 20 : 3428 – 3436 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Negi , P. S. and Roy , S. K. 2000a . Effect of blanching and drying methods on β-carotene, ascorbic acid and chlorophyll retention of leafy vegetables. . Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft und Technologie , 33 : 295 – 298 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Negi , P. S. and Roy , S. K. 2000b . Effect of low cost storage and packaging on quality and nutritive value of fresh and dehydrated carrots . J. Sci. Food Agric. , 80 : 2169 – 2175 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Negi , P. S. and Roy , S. K. 2000c . Storage performance of savoy beet (Beta vulgaris var. bengalensis) in different growing seasons . Trop. Sci. , 40 : 211 – 213 .
   Google Scholar
• Negi , P. S. and Roy , S. K. 2001a . Effect of blanching on quality attributes of dehydrated carrots during long term storage . European Food Res. Technol. , 212 : 445 – 448 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Negi , P. S. and Roy , S. K. 2001b . Effect of drying conditions on quality of green leaves during long term storage . Food Res. Intl. , 34 : 283 – 287 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Negi , P. S. and Roy , S. K. 2001c . Retention of quality characteristics of dehydrated green leaves during storage . Plant Foods Human Nutr. , 56 : 285 – 295 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Negi , P. S. and Roy , S. K. 2003 . Changes in β-carotene and ascorbic acid content of amaranth and fenugreek leaves during storage by low cost technique . Plant Foods for Human Nutr. , 58 : 1 – 8 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ninu , L. , Ahmad , M. , Miarelli , C. , Cashmore , A. R. and Giuliano , G. 1999 . Cryptochrome 1 controls tomato development in response to blue light . Plant J. , 18 : 551 – 556 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niyogi , K. K. 1999 . Phoprotection revisited: genetic and molecular approaches . Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. , 50 : 333 – 339 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nishizaki , T. , Tsuge , K. , Itaya , M. , Doi , N. and Yanagawa , H. 2007 . Metabolic engineering of carotenoid biosynthesis in Escherichia coli by ordered gene assembly in Bacillus subtilis . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 73 : 1355 – 1361 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olson , J. A. and Hayaishi , O. 1965 . The enzymatic cleavage of β-carotene into vitamin A by soluble enzymes of rat liver and intestine . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. , 54 : 1364 – 1370 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Onayemi , O. and Okeibuno Badifu , G. I. 1987 . Effect of Blanching and drying methods on nutritional and sensory quality of leafy vegetables . Plant Food for Human Nutr. , 37 : 291 – 298 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ornelas-Paz , J. , De , J. , Falla , M. L. , Yahia , E. M. and Gardea-Bejar , A. 2008 . Impact of the stage of ripening and dietary fat on in vitro bioaccessibility of β-carotene in “Ataulfo” mango . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 56 : 1511 – 1516 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paine , J. A. , Shipton , C. A. , Chaggar , S. , Howells , R. M. , Kennedy , M. J. , Vernon , G. , Wright , S. Y. , Hinchliffe , E. , Adams , J. L. , Silverstone , A. L. and Drake , R. 2005 . Improving the nutritional value of golden rice through increased pro-vitamin A content . Nat. Biotechnol. , 23 : 482 – 487 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paiva , S. and Russel , R. 1999 . Beta-carotene and other carotenoids as antioxidants . J. Am. Coll. Nutr. , 18 : 426 – 433 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paran , E. 2006 . “ Reducing hypertension with tomato lycopene ” . In Tomatoes, Lycopene and Human Health , Edited by: Rao , A. V. 169 – 182 . Scotland : Caledonian Science Press .
   Google Scholar
• Park , H. , Kreunen , S. S. , Cuttris , A. J. , dellaPenna , D. and Pogson , B. J. 2002 . Identification of the carotenoid isomerase provides insight into carotenoid biosynthesis, prolamellar body formation and photomorphogenesis . Plant Cell , 14 : 321 – 332 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park , W. Y. 1987 . Effect of freezing, thawing, drying and cooking on carotene retention in carrots, broccoli and spinach . J. Food Sci. , 52 : 1022 – 1025 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parthasarathy , S. , Steinberg , D. and Witztum , J. L. 1992 . The role of oxidized low density lipoproteins in pathogenesis of atherosclerosis . Ann. Rev. Med. , 43 : 219 – 225 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pecker , I. , Chamovitz , D. , Linden , H. , Sandmann , G. and Hirschberg , J. 1992 . A single polypeptide catalysing the conversion of phytoene to z-carotene is transcriptionally regulated during tomato fruit ripening . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. , 89 : 4962 – 4966 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pecker , I. , Gabbay , R. , Cunningham , F. X. and Hirschberg , J. 1996 . Cloning and characterization of the cDNA for lycopene beta-cyclase from tomato reveals decrease in its expression during fruit ripening . Plant Mol. Biol. , 30 : 807 – 819 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pfundel , E. E. , Renganathan , M. , Gilmore , A. M. , Yamamoto , H. Y. and Dilley , R. A. 1994 . Intrathylakoid pH in isolated pea chloroplasts as probed by violaxanthin deepoxidation . Plant Physiol. , 106 : 1647 – 1658 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plumley , F. G. and Schimdt , G. W. 1987 . Reconstitution of chlorophyll a/b light-harvesting complexes: xanthophylls- dependent assembly and energy transfer . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. , 84 : 146 – 150 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Potter , J. D. , Slattery , M. L. , Bostick , R. M. and Gapstur , S. M. 1993 . Colon cancer: A review of epidemiology. . Epidemiol. Rev. , 15 : 499 – 545 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poulter , C. D. and Rilling , H. C. 1981 . Biosynthesis of isoprenoid compounds , Edited by: Porter , J. W. and Spurgeon , S. L. Vol 1 , 162 – 224 . New York : John Wiley and Sons .
   Google Scholar
• Prakash , P. , Russell , R. M. and Krinsky , N. I. 2001 . In vitro inhibition of proliferation of estrogen-dependent and estrogen-independent human breast cancer cells treated with carotenoids or retinoids . J. Nutr. , 131 : 1574 – 1680 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prestamo , G. , Fuster , C. and Risueno , M. C. 1998 . Effect of blanching and freezing on the structure of carrots cells and their implications for food processing . J. Sci. Food Agric. , 77 : 223 – 229 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Puupponen-Pimiä , R. , Häkkinen , S. T. , Aarni , M. , Suortti , T. , Lampi , A. M. , Eurola , M. , Piironen , V. , Nuutila , A. M. and Oksman-Caldentey , K. M. 2003 . Blanching and long-term freezing affect various bioactive compounds of vegetables in different ways . J. Sci. Food Agric. , 83 : 1389 – 1402 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rahman , M. M. , Wahed , M. A. and Akbar Ali , M. 1990 . β -carotene losses during different methods of cooking green leafy vegetables in Bangladesh . J. Food Compos. Anal. , 3 : 47 – 53 .
   Google Scholar
• Raju , M. , Varakumar , S. , Lakshminarayana , R. , Krishnakantha , T. P. and Baskaran , V. 2007 . Carotenoid composition and vitamin A activity of medicinally important green leafy vegetables . Food Chem. , 101 : 1598 – 1605 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ralley , L. , Enfissi , E. M. , Misawa , N. , Schuch , W. , Bramley , P. M. and Fraser , P. D. 2004 . Metabolic engineering of ketocarotenoid formation in higher plants . Plant J. , 39 : 477 – 486 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao , A. V. and Rao , L. G. 2007 . Carotenoids and human health . Pharmacological Res. , 55 : 207 – 216 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao , L. G. , Krishnadev , N. , Banasikowska , K. and Rao , A. V. 2003 . Lycopene I—Effect on osteoclasts: Lycopene inhibits basal and parathyroid hormone-stimulated osteoclast formation and mineral resorption mediated by reactive oxygen species in rat bone marrow cultures . J. Med. Food. , 6 : 69 – 78 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rao , L. G. , Mackinnon , E. S. , Josse , R. G. , Murray , T. M. , Strauss , A. and Rao , A. V. 2007 . Lycopene consumption decreases oxidative stress and bone resorption markers in postmenopausal women . Osteoporosis Int. , 18 : 109 – 115 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ravanello , M. P. , Ke , D. , Alvarez , J. , Huang , B. and Shewmaker , C. K. 2003 . Coordinate expression of multiple bacterial carotenoid genes in canola leading to altered carotenoid production . Metab. Eng. , 5 : 255 – 263 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ray , P. , Gillet , B. , Romer , S. , Massimino , J. , Peltier , G. and Huntz , M. 2000 . Eymery Food Over expression of a pepper plastid lipid associated protein in tobacco leads to change in plastid ultrastructure and plant development upon stress . Plant J. , 21 : 483 – 494 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Re , R. , Bramley , P. M. and Rice-Evans , C. 2002 . Effects of Food Processing on Flavonoids and Lycopene Status in a Mediterranean Tomato Variety . Free Rad.l Res. , 36 : 803 – 810 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rissanen , T. , Voutilainen , S. , Nyyssonen , K. and Salonen , J. T. 2002 . Lycopene, atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease . Exp. Biol. Med. , 227 : 900 – 907 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rissler , H. M. and Pogson , B. J. 2000 . Genetic manipulation of carotenoid biosynthesis and photoprotection . Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B-Biol. Sci. , 355 : 1395 – 1403 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rodriguez-Amaya , D. B. 2003 . Food Carotenoids: analysis, composition and alterations during storage and processing of foods . Forum Nutr. , 56 : 35 – 37 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rodriguez-Amaya , D. B. 2001 . A Guide to Carotenoid Analysis in Foods , Washington DC : ILSI Press .
   Google Scholar
• Rodriguez-Concepcion , M. 2006 . Early steps in isoprenoid biosynthesis: multilevel regulation of the supply of common precursors in plant cells . Phytochem. Rev. , 5 : 1 – 15 .
   Google Scholar
• Rodriguez-Concepcion , M. and Boronat , A. 2002 . Elucidation of the methylerythritol phosphate pathway for isoprenoid biosynthesis in bacteria and plastids. A metabolic milestone achieved through genomics . Plant Physiol. , 130 : 1079 – 1089 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rohmer , M. 1999 . The discovery of a mevalonate-independent pathway for isoprenoid biosynthesis in bacteria, algae and higher plants . Nat. Prod. Rep. , 16 : 565 – 574 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romer , S. , Fraser , P. D. , Kiano , J. W. , Shipton , C. A. , Misawa , N. , Schuch , W. and Bramley , P. M. 2000 . Elevation of the provitamin A content of transgenic tomato plants . Nat. Biotechnol. , 18 : 666 – 669 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romer , S. , Lubeck , J. , Kauder , F. , Steiger , S. , Adomat , C. and Sandmann , G. 2002 . Genetic engineering of a zeaxanthin-rich potato by antisense inactivation and co-suppression of carotenoid epoxidation . Metab. Eng. , 4 : 263 – 272 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ronen , G. , Carmel-Goren , L. , Zamir , D. and Hirschberg , J. 2000 . An alternative pathway to β-carotene formation in plant chromoplasts discovered by map-based cloning of Beta and old-gold color mutations in tomato . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. , 97 : 11102 – 11107 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ronen , G. , Cohen , M. , Zamir , D. and Hirschberg , J. 1999 . Regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis during tomato fruit development: expression of the gene for lycopene epsilon cyclase is down regulated during ripening and is elevated in the mutant delta . Plant J. , 17 : 341 – 351 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosati , C. , Aquilani , R. , Dharmapuri , S. , Pallara , P. , Marusic , C. , Tavazza , R. , Bouvier , F. , Camara , B. and Giuliano , G. 2000 . Metabolic engineering of beta carotene and lycopene content in tomato fruit . Plant J. , 24 : 413 – 419 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruban , A. V. , Lee , P. J. , Wentworth , M. , Young , A. J. and Horton , P. 1999 . Determination of the stoichiometry and strength of binding of xanthophylls to the photosystem II light harvesting complexes . J. Biol. Chem. , 274 : 10458 – 10465 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruther , A. , Misawa , N. , Boger , P. and Sandmann , G. 1997 . Production of zeaxanthin in Escherichia coli transformed with different carotenogenic plasmids . Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. , 48 : 162 – 167 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Saguy , I. , Goldman , M. and Karel , M. 1985 . Prediction of beta-carotene decolorization in model system under static and dynamic conditions of reduced oxygen environment . J. Food Sci. , 50 : 526 – 530 .
   Google Scholar
• Sandmann , G. 1994 . Carotenoid biosynthesis in microorganisms and plants . Eur. J. Biochem. , 223 : 7 – 24 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sandmann , G. 2000 . Combinatorial biosynthesis of novel carotenoids in E. coli . Meth. Mol. Biol. , 205 : 303 – 314 .
   Google Scholar
• Sandmann , G. , Albrecht , M. , Schnurr , G. , Knorzer , O. and Boger , P. 1999 . The biotechnological potential and design of novel carotenoids by gene combination in Escherichia coli . Trends Biotechnol. , 17 : 233 – 237 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sandmann , G. , Romer , S. and Fraser , P. D. 2006 . Understanding carotenoid metabolism as a necessity for genetic engineering of crop plants . Metab. Eng. , 8 : 291 – 302 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santos , C. A. F. and Simon , P. W. 2002 . QTL analysis reveal clustered loci for accumulation of major provitamin A carotenes and lycopene in carrot roots . Mol. Genet. Genomics , 268 : 122 – 129 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schadle , E. R. , Burns , E. E. and Talley , L. J. 1983 . Forced air drying of partially freeze dried compressed carrot bars . J. Food Sci. , 48 : 193 – 196 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schafer , L. , Sandmann , M. , Woitsch , S. and Sandmann , G. 2006 . Coordinate up-regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis as a response to light stress in Synechococcus PCC7942 . Plant Cell Environ. , 29 : 1349 – 1356 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schledz , M. , Al-Babili , S. , von Lintig , J. , Haubruck , H. , Rabbani , S. , Kleinig , H. and Beyer , P. 1996 . Phytoene synthase from Narcissus pseudonarcissus: functional expression galactolipid requirement, topological distribution in chromoplasts and induction during flowering . Plant J. , 10 : 781 – 792 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt-Dannert , C. , Umeno , D. and Arnold , F. H. 2000 . Molecular breeding of carotenoid biosynthetic pathways . Nat. Biotechnol. , 18 : 750 – 753 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schofield , A. and Paliyath , G. 2005 . Modulation of carotenoid biosynthesis during tomato fruit ripening through phytochrome regulation of phytoene synthase activity . Plant Physiol. Biochem , 43 : 1052 – 1060 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz , S. H. , Tan , B. C. , Gage , D. A. , Zeevaart , J. A. D. and McCarty , D. R. 1997 . Specific oxidative cleavage of carotenoids by VP14 of maize . Science , 276 : 1872 – 1874 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz , S. H. , Tan , B. C. , McCarty , D. R. , Welch , W. and Zeevart , J. A. 2003 . Substrate specificity and kinetics for VP 14, a carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase in the ABA biosynthetic pathway . Biochimica Biophysica Acta. , 1619 : 9 – 14 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schwartz , S. J. , Joachim , H. , Von Elbe and Giusti , M. M. 2008 . “ Colorants ” . In Food Chemistry , Edited by: Damodaran , S. , Parkin , K. L. and Fennema , O. R. 571 – 638 . London : CRC Press .
   Google Scholar
• Scolnik , P. A. and Bartley , G. E. 1996 . A table of some cloned plant genes involved in isoprenoid biosynthesis . Plant Mol. Biol. Rep. , 14 : 305 – 319 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seybold , C. , Frohlich , K. , Bitsch , R. , Otto , K. and Bohm , V. 2004 . Changes in contents of carotenoids and vitamin E during tomato processing . J. Agri. Food Chem. , 52 : 7005 – 7010 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharoni , Y. , Giron , E. , Rise , M. and Levy , J. 1997 . Effects of lycopene-enriched tomato oleoresin on 7, 12-dimethyl-benz[a]anthracene-induced rat mammary tumors . Cancer Detect. Prev. , 21 : 118 – 123 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shewmaker , C. K. , Sheehy , J. A. , Daley , M. , Colburn , S. and Ke , D. Y. 1999 . Seed-specific over-expression of phytoene synthase: Increase in carotenoids and other metabolic effects . Plant J. , 20 : 401 – 412 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shi , J. and Le Maguer , M. 2000 . Lycopene in tomatoes: chemical and physical properties affected by food processing . Crit. Rev. Biotechnol. , 20 : 293 – 334 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shi , J. X. , LeMaguer , M. , Kakuda , Y. , Liptay , A. and Niekam , F. 1999 . Lycopene degradation and isomerization in tomato dehydration . Food Res. Int. , 32 : 15 – 21 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shi , H. , Furr , H. C. and Olson , J. A. 1991 . Retinoids and carotenoids in bovine pineal gland . Brain Res. Bull. , 26 : 235 – 239 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shyu , S. L. , Hau , L. B. and Sun , H. L. 1998 . Influence of vacuum frying time on the chemical constituents of fried carrot chips . Shipin Kexue , 25 : 737 – 747 .
   Google Scholar
• Sies , H. and Stahl , W. 2003 . Non-nutritive bioactive constituents of plants: lycopene, lutein and zeaxanthin . Int. J. Vit. Nutr. Res. , 73 : 95 – 100 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simkin , A. J. , Laboure , A. M. , Kuntz , M. and Sandmann , G. 2003a . Comparison of carotenoid content, gene expression and enzyme levels in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) leaves . Z. Naturforsch. , 58C : 371 – 380 .
   Google Scholar
• Simkin , A. J. , Uhu , C. , Kuntz , M. and Sandmann , G. 2003b . Light-dark regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis in pepper (Capsicum annuum) leaves . J. Plant Physiol. , 160 : 439 – 443 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slattery , M. L. , Benson , J. , Curtin , K. , Khe-Ni , M. , Schaeffer , D. and Potter , J. D. 2000 . Carotenoid and colon cancer . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 71 : 575 – 582 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snodderly , D. M. 1995 . Evidence for protection against age-related macular degeneration by carotenoids and antioxidant vitamins . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 62S : 1448S – 1461S .
   Google Scholar
• Sorefan , K. , Booker , J. , Haurogne , K. , Goussot , M. , Bainbridge , K. , Foo , E. , Chatfield , S. , Ward , S. , Beveridge , C. , Rameau , C. and Leyser , O. 2003 . MAX4 RMS1 are orthologous dioxygenase-like genes that regulate shoot branching in Arabidopsis and pea . Genes & Development , 17 : 1469 – 1474 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Speek , A. J. , Speek-Saichua , S. and Schreurs , W. H. P. 1988 . Total carotenoid and β-carotene contents of Thai vegetables and the effect of processing . Food Chem. , 27 : 245 – 257 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stahl , W. and Sies , H. 2002 . Carotenoids and protection against solar UV radiation . Skin Pharmacol. Appl. Skin Physiol. , 15 : 291 – 296 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stahl , W. and Sies , H. 1992 . Uptake of lycopene and its geometrical-isomers is greater from heat-processed than from unprocessed tomato juice in humans . J. Nutr. , 122 : 2161 – 2166 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stahl , W. , Nicolai , S. , Briviba , K. and Hanusch , M. 1997 . Biological activities of natural and synthetic carotenoids: induction of gap junctional communication and singlet oxygen quenching . Carcinogenesis , 18 : 89 – 92 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stalberg , K. , Lindgren , O. , Ek , B. and Hoglund , A. S. 2003 . Synthesis of ketocarotenoids in the seed of Arabidopsis thaliana. . Plant J. , 36 : 771 – 779 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steinbrenner , J. and Linden , H. 2001 . Regulation of Two Carotenoid Biosynthesis Genes Coding for Phytoene Synthase and Carotenoid Hydroxylase during Stress-Induced Astaxanthin Formation in the Green Alga Haematococcus pluvialis. . Plant Physiol. , 125 : 810 – 817 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steinbrenner , J. and Linden , H. 2003 . Light induction of carotenoid biosynthesis genes in the green alga Haematococcus pluvialis: regulation by photosynthetic redox control . Plant Mol. Biol. , 52 : 343 – 356 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suzuki , S. , Nishihara , M. , Nakatsuka , T. , Misawa , N. , Ogiwara , I. and Yamamura , S. 2007 . Flower color alteration in Lotus japonicus by modification of the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway . Plant Cell Rep. , 26 : 951 – 959 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Takahashi , S. , Kuzuyama , T. , Watanabe , H. and Seto , H. 1998 . A 1-deoxy-D-Xylulose 5 phosphate reductoisomerase catalysing the formation of 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate in an alternative nonmevalonate pathway for terpenoid biosynthesis . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. , 95 : 9879 – 9884 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Takeoka , G. R. , Dao , L. , Flessa , S. , Gillespie , D. M. , Jewell , W. T. , Huebner , B. , Bertow , D. and Ebeler , S. E. 2001 . Processing effects on lycopene content and antioxidant activity of tomatoes . J. Agri. Food Chem. , 49 : 3713 – 3717 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tamburini , R. , Sandei , L. , Aldini , A. , De Sio , F. and Leoni , C. 1999 . Effect of storage conditions on lycopene contnt in tomato purees obtained with different processing techniques . Ind. Conserve , 74 : 341 – 357 .
   Google Scholar
• Taylor , M. A. and Ramsay , G. 2005 . Carotenoid biosynthesis in plant storage organs: Recent advances and prospects for improving plant food quality . Plant Physiol. , 124 : 143 – 151 .
   Google Scholar
• Tefler , A. 2002 . What is beta-carotene doing in photosystem II reaction centre? . Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B-Biol. Sci. , 357 : 1431 – 1439 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Than , A. , Bramley , P. M. , Davies , B. H. and Rees , A. F. 1972 . Stereochemistry of phytoene . Phytochem. , 11 : 3187 – 3190 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson , K. A. , Marshall , M. R. , Sims , C. A. , Wei , C. I. , Sargent , S. A. and Scott , J. W. 2000 . Cultivar, maturity and heat treatment on lycopene content in tomatoes . Food Chem. , 65 : 791 – 795 .
   Google Scholar
• Tian , L. , Musetti , V. , Kim , J. , Magallanes-Lundback , M. and DellaPenna , D. 2004 . The Arabidopsis LUT1 locus encodes a member of the cytochrome p450 family that is required for carotenoid epsilon-ring hydroxylation activity . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. , 101 : 402 – 407 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toor , R. K. and Savage , G. P. 2006 . Effect of semi-drying on the antioxidant components of tomatoes . Food Chem. , 94 : 90 – 97 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Umeno , D. , Tobias , A. V. and Arnold , F. H. 2005 . Diversifying carotenoid biosynthetic pathways by directed evolution . Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. , 69 : 51 – 78 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Unlu , N. Z. , Bohn , T. , Francis , D. , Clinton , S. K. and Schwart , S. J. 2007 . Carotenoids absorption in human consuming tomato sauces obtained from tangerine or high-beta-carotene varieties of tomatoes . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 55 : 1597 – 1603 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ute , S. , Christina , K. , Andreas , S. and Reinhold , C. 2007 . Effects of processing and storage on the stability of free and esterified carotenoids of red peppers (Capsicum annuum L.) and hot chilli peppers (Capsicum frutescens L.) . European Food Res. Technol. A , 225 : 261 – 270 .
   Google Scholar
• Van Breeman , R. B. , Xu , X. , Viana , M. A. , Chen , L. , Stacewicz-Sapuntzakis , M. , Duncan , C. , Bowen , P. E. and Sharifi , R. 2002 . Liquid chromatography mass spectroscopy of cis- and all trans lycopene in human serum and prostate tissue after dietary supplementation with tomato sauce . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 50 : 2214 – 2219 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Van het Hof , K. H. , West , C. E. , Weststrate , J. A. and Hautvast , J. G. A. J. 2000 . Dietary factors that affect bioavailability of carotenoids . J. Nutr. , 130 : 503 – 506 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Von Lintig , J. , Welsch , R. , Bonk , M. , Giuliano , G. , Batschauer , A. and Kleinig , H. 1997 . Light-dependent regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis occurs at the level of phytoene synthase expression and is mediated by phytochrome in Sinapis alba Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings . Plant J. , 12 : 625 – 634 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vrettos , J. S. , Stewart , D. H. , de Paula , J. C. and Brudvig , G. W. 1999 . Low-temperature optical and resonance Raman spectra of a carotenoid cation radical in photosystem II . J. Phys. Chem. B. , 103 : 6403 – 6406 .
   Google Scholar
• Wang , C. , Oh , M. and Liao , J. 2000 . Directed evolution of metabolically engineered Escherichia coli for carotenoid production . Biotechnol. Prog. , 16 : 922 – 926 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang , H. , Cao , G. and Prior , R. 1996 . Total antioxidant capacity of fruits . J Agric. Food Chem. , 44 : 701 – 705 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wasantwisut , E. , Sungpuag , P. , Chavasit , V. , Chittchang , U. , Jittinanadana , S. and Viriyapanich , T. 1995 . “ Identifying and recommending vitamin A rich foods in Northeast Thailand ” . In Empowering Vitamin A Foods , Edited by: Wasantwisut , E. and Attig , G. A. 69 – 90 . Bangkok : Institute of Nutrition .
   Google Scholar
• Waters , M. T. , Fray , R. G. and Pyke , K. A. 2004 . Stromule formation is dependent upon plastid size, plastid differentiation status and the density of plastids within the cell . Plant J. , 39 : 655 – 667 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Welsch , R. , Beyer , P. , Hugueney , P. , Kleinig , H. and von Lintig , J. 2000 . Regulation and activation of phytoene synthase in carotenoid biosynthesis during photomorphogenesis . Planta , 211 : 846 – 854 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• West , C. E. , Eilander , A. and van Lieshout , M. 2002 . Consequences of revised estimated of carotenoid bioefficacy for dietary control of vitamin A deficiency in developing countries . J Nutr. , 132 : 2920S – 2926S .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wille , A. , Zimmermann , P. , Vranova , E. , Furholz , A. , Laule , O. , Bleuler , S. , Hennig , L. , Prelic , A. , von Rohr , P. , Thiele , L. , Zitzler , E. , Gruissem , W. and Buhlmann , P. 2004 . Sparse graphical Gaussian modeling of the isoprenoid gene network in Arabidopsis thaliana . Genome Biol. , 5 : R92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witztum , J. L. 1994 . The oxidation hypothesis of artherosclerosis. . Lancet , 344 : 793 – 796 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright , M. E. , Mayne , S. T. , Swanson , C. A. , Sinha , R. and Alavanja , M. C. 2003 . Dietary carotenoids, vegetables and lung cancer risk in women: The Missouri women′ s health study (United States) . Cancer Causes Control , 14 : 85 – 96 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yamasaki , H. 1990 . Gap junctional intercellular communication and carcinogenesis . Carcinogenesis , 11 : 1051 – 1058 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ye , X. , Al Babili , S. , Kloti , A. , Zhang , J. , Lucca , P. , Beyer , P. and Potrykus , I. 2000 . Engineering the provitamin A (beta-carotene) biosynthetic pathway into (carotenoid-free) rice endosperm . Science , 287 : 303 – 305 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yonekura , L. and Nagao , A. 2007 . Intestinal absorption of dietary carotenoids . Mol. Nutr. Food Res. , 51 : 107 – 115 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoon , S. H. , Park , H. M. , Kim , J. E. , Lee , S. H. , Choi , M. S. , Kim , J. Y. , Oh , D. K. , Keasling , J. D. and Kim , S. W. 2007 . Increased beta-carotene production in recombinant Escherichia coli harboring an engineered isoprenoid precursor pathway with mevalonate addition . Biotechnol. Prog. , 23 : 599 – 605 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yoon , S. H. , Lee , Y. M. , Kim , J. E. , Lee , S. H. , Lee , J. H. , Kim , J. Y. , Jung , K. H. , Shin , Y. C. , Keasling , J. D. and Kim , S. W. 2006 . Enhanced lycopene production in Escherichia coli engineered to synthesize isopentenyl diphosphate and dimethylallyl diphosphate from mevalonate . Biotechnol. Bioeng. , 94 : 1025 – 1032 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu , B. , Lydiate , D. J. , Young , L. W. , Schafer , U. A. and Hannoufa , A. 2007 . Enhancing the carotenoid content of Brassica napus seeds by downregulating lycopene epsilon cyclase . Transgenic Res. , 17 : 573 – 585 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yuan , L. Z. , Rouviere , P. E. , Larossa , R. A. and Suh , W. 2006 . Chromosomal promoter replacement of the isoprenoid pathway for enhancing carotenoid production in E. coli. . Metab. Eng. , 8 : 79 – 90 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zanoni , B. , Peri , C. , Nani , R. and Lavelli , V. 1998 . Oxidative heat damage of tomato halves as affected by drying. . Food Res. Int. , 31 : 395 – 401 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeb , A. and Mehmood , S. 2004 . Carotenoids Contents from Various Sources and Their Potential Health Applications . Pakistan J. Nutr. , 3 : 199 – 204 .
   Google Scholar
• Zeigler , R. 1993 . “ Carotenoids, cancer and clinical trials ” . In Carotenoids in Human Health , Edited by: Canfield , I. , Drinski , N. and Olson , J. 100 – 119 . New York : Annals of New York Academy of Sciences .
   Google Scholar
• Zhang , X. 1996 . Study of retention of carotene content in carrot juice processing . Zhejiang Gongye Daxue Xuebao , 24 : 239 – 242 .
   Google Scholar
• Zhang , J. , Tao , N. , Xu , Q. , Zhou , W. , Cao , H. , Xu , J. and Deng , X. 2009 . Functional characterization of Citrus PSY gene in Hongkong kumquat (Fortunella hindsii Swingle) . Plant Cell Rep. , 28 : 1737 – 1746 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao , Y. P. and Chang , K. C. 1995 . Sulfite and starch affect color and carotenoids of dehydrated carrots (Daucus carota) during storage . J. Food Sci. , 60 : 324 – 326 . 347
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhu , C. , Gerjets , T. and Sandmann , G. 2007 . Nicotiana glauca engineered for the production of ketocarotenoids in flowers and leaves by expressing the cyanobacterial crtO ketolase gene . Transgenic Res. , 16 : 813 – 821 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zulueta , A. , Esteve , M. J. and Frigola , A. 2007 . Carotenoids and color of fruit juice and milk beverage mixtures . J. Food Sci. , 72 : C457 – C463 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar