Fortification of Foods with Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids

REFERENCES

• Ackman , R. G. 2000 . “ Fatty acids in fish and shellfish ” . In Fatty Acids in Foods and Their Health Implications , Edited by: Chow , C. K. 153 – 174 . New York : Marcel Drekker, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Ackroff , K. , Lucas , F. and Sclafani , A. 2005 . Flavor preference conditioning as a function of fat source . Physiol. Behav. , 85 ( 4 ) : 448 – 460 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agostoni , C. 2008 . Role of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in the first year of life . J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol Nutr. , 47 ( Suppl. 2 ) : S41 – S44 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aguedo , M. , Hanon , E. , Danthine , S. , Paquot , M. , Lognay , G. Thomas , A. 2008 . Enrichment of anhydrous milk fat in polyunsaturated fatty acid residues from linseed and rapeseed oils through enzymatic interesterification . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 56 : 1757 – 1765 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ailhaud , G. , Massiera , F. , Weill , P. , Legrand , P. , Alessandri , J. M. and Guesnet , P. 2006 . Temporal changes in dietary fats: Role of n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids in excessive adipose tissue development and relationship to obesity . Prog. Lipid. Res. , 45 ( 3 ) : 203 – 236 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aldini , G. , Dalle-Donne , I. , Facino , R. M. , Milzani , A. and Carini , M. 2007 . Intervention strategies to inhibit protein carbonylation by lipoxidation-derived reactive carbonyls . Med. Res. Rev. , 27 ( 6 ) : 817 – 868 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allred , S. L. , Dhiman , T. R. , Brennand , C. P. , Khanal , R. C. , McMahon , D. J. and Luchini , N. D. 2006 . Milk and cheese from cows fed calcium salts of palm and fish oil alone or in combination with soybean products . J. Dairy Sci. , 89 ( 1 ) : 234 – 248 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson , G. H. , Aziz , A. and Abou Samra , R. 2006 . Physiology of food intake regulation: Interaction with dietary components . Nestle Nutr. Workshop Ser. Pediatr. Program , 58 : 133 – 143 . discussion 143–135
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Anonymous . 2007 . Methylmercury in sport fish: information for fish consumers. Available from http://oehha.ca.gov/fish/hg/index.html. Accessed January 30, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Arterburn , L. M. , Hall , E. B. and Oken , H. 2006 . Distribution, interconversion, and dose response of n-3 fatty acids in humans . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 83 ( Suppl. 6 ) : 1467S – 1476S .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ayadi , M. A. , Grati-Kamoun , N. and Attia , H. 2009 . Physico-chemical change and heat stability of extra virgin olive oils flavoured by selected Tunisian aromatic plants . Food Chem. Toxicol. , 47 ( 10 ) : 2613 – 2619 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bingham , C. O. 3rd and Austen , K. F. 1999 . Phospholipase A2 enzymes in eicosanoid generation . Proc. Assoc. Am. Physicians , 111 ( 6 ) : 516 – 524 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Borga , K. , Fisk , A. T. , Hoekstra , P. E. and Muir , D. C. 2004 . Biological and chemical factors of importance in the bioaccumulation and trophic transfer of persistent organochlorine contaminants in Arctic marine food webs . Environ. Toxicol. Chem. , 23 ( 10 ) : 2367 – 2385 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bourre , J. M. 2005 . Effect of increasing the omega-3 fatty acid in the diets of animals on the animal products consumed by humans . Med. Sci. (Paris) , 21 ( 8–9 ) : 773 – 779 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bourre , J. M. and Paquotte , P. 2008 . Seafood (wild and farmed) for the elderly: Contribution to the dietary intakes of iodine, selenium, DHA and vitamins B12 and D . J. Nutr. Health Aging , 12 ( 3 ) : 186 – 192 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brennand , C. P. , Ha , J. K. and Lindsay , R. C. 1989 . Aroma properties and thresholds of some branched-chain and other minor volatile fatty acids occurring in milkfat and meat lipids . J. Sens. Stud. , 4 ( 2 ) : 105 – 120 .
   Google Scholar
• Brenner , R. R. 1984 . Effect of unsaturated acids on membrane structure and enzyme kinetics . Prog. Lipid Res. , 23 ( 2 ) : 69 – 96 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewer , M. S. 2009 . Irradiation effects on meat flavor: A review . Meat Sci. , 81 : 1 – 14 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , S. A. 2008 . Oxidative stress and chronic kidney disease . Vet. Clin. North Am. Small Anim. Pract. , 38 ( 1 ) : 157 – 166 . vi
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burdge , G. C. 2006 . Metabolism of alpha-linolenic acid in humans . Prostag. Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids , 75 ( 3 ) : 161 – 168 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calder , P. C. and Grimble , R. F. 2002 . Polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation and immunity . Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. , 56 ( Suppl. 3 ) : S14 – S19 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calviello , G. , Palozza , P. , Maggiano , N. , Piccioni , E. , Franceschelli , P. Frattucci , A. 1999 . Cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis are modified by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in normal colonic mucosa . Lipids , 34 ( 6 ) : 599 – 604 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cantor , A. H. , Decker , E. A. and Collins , V. P. 2000 . “ Fatty acids in poultry and egg products ” . In Fatty Acids in Foods and Their Health Implications , Edited by: Chow , C. K. 153 – 174 . New York : Marcel Drekker, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Carlier , H. , Bernard , A. and Caselli , C. 1991 . Digestion and absorption of polyunsaturated fatty acids . Reprod. Nutr. Dev. , 31 ( 5 ) : 475 – 500 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Certik , M. and Shimizu , S. 1999 . Biosynthesis and regulation of microbial polyunsaturated fatty acid production . J. Biosci. Bioeng. , 87 ( 1 ) : 1 – 14 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaiyasit , W. , Elias , R. J. , McClements , D. J. and Decker , E. A. 2007 . Role of physical structures in bulk oils on lipid oxidation . Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. , 47 ( 3 ) : 299 – 317 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaiyasit , W. , McClements , D. J. , Weiss , J. and Decker , E. A. 2008 . Impact of surface-active compounds on physicochemical and oxidative properties of edible oil . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 56 ( 2 ) : 550 – 556 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen , C. T. , Green , J. T. , Orr , S. K. and Bazinet , R. P. 2008 . Regulation of brain polyunsaturated fatty acid uptake and turnover . Prostag. Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids , 79 ( 3–5 ) : 85 – 91 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Childs , C. E. , Romeu-Nadal , M. , Burdge , G. C. and Calder , P. C. 2008 . Gender differences in the n-3 fatty acid content of tissues . Proc. Nutr. Soc. , 67 ( 1 ) : 19 – 27 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chin , H.-W. and Lindsay , R. C. 1994 . Ascorbate and transition-metal mediation of methanethiol oxidation to dimethyl disulfide and dimethyl trisulfide . Food Chem. , 49 ( 4 ) : 387 – 392 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choe , E. and Min , D. B. 2007 . Chemistry of deep-fat frying oils . J. Food Sci. , 72 ( 5 ) : R77 – R86 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christensen , B. , Kjær , A. and Madsen , J. 1981 . Volatile sulfur compounds and other headspace constituents of north sea fish oils . Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society , 58 ( 12 ) : 1053 – 1057 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christensen , K. R. and Reineccius , G. A. 1992 . Gas chromatographic analysis of volatile sulfur compounds from heated milk using static headspace sampling . J. Dairy Sci. , 75 ( 8 ) : 2098 – 2104 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christie , W. W. 1995 . “ Composition and structure of milk lipids ” . In Advances in Dairy Chemistry, Lipids , Edited by: Fox , P. F. Vol. 2 , 1 – 36 . London : Chapman and Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Conklin , K. A. 2002 . Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids: Impact on cancer chemotherapy and radiation . Altern. Med. Rev. , 7 ( 1 ) : 4 – 21 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• De Vizia , B. , Raia , V. , Spano , C. , Pavlidis , C. , Coruzzo , A. and Alessio , M. 2003 . Effect of an 8-month treatment with omega-3 fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic) in patients with cystic fibrosis . JPEN J. Parenter Enteral. Nutr. , 27 ( 1 ) : 52 – 57 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diez , S. 2009 . Human health effects of methylmercury exposure . Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. , 198 : 111 – 132 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Douaud , C. 2006 . First DHA/ARA-fortified organic baby formula launched . Available from www.nutraingredients-usa.com/Industry/First-DHA-ARA-fortified-organic-baby-formula-launched. Accessed January 30, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Dyerberg , J. , Eskesen , D. C. , Andersen , P. W. , Astrup , A. , Buemann , B. Christensen , J. H. 2004 . Effects of trans- and n-3 unsaturated fatty acids on cardiovascular risk markers in healthy males. An 8 weeks dietary intervention study . Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. , 58 : 1062 – 1070 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El Abed , M. M. , Marzouk , B. , Medhioub , M. N. , Helal , A. N. and Medhioub , A. 2008 . Microalgae: A potential source of polyunsaturated fatty acids . Nutr. Health , 19 ( 3 ) : 221 – 226 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ervin , R. W. J. , Wang , C. and Kennedy-Stephenson , J. 2004 . Dietary intake of fats and fatty acids for the United States population: 1999–2000 . Adv. Data Vital Health Stat. , 348 : 1 – 6 . ([DHHS publication no. (PHS) 2005-1250 04-0565.])
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Eunok , C. and David , B. M. 2006 . Mechanisms and factors for edible oil oxidation . Comprehen. Rev. Food Sci. Food Safety , 5 ( 4 ) : 169 – 186 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FDA . 2004 . Available from www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/2004/ucm108351.htm. Accessed January 30, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Fellers , D. A. and Bean , M. M. 1977 . Storage stability of wheat based foods: A review . J. Food Sci , 42 : 1143 – 1147 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fewtrell , M. S. 2006 . Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in early life: Effects on multiple health outcomes. A critical review of current status, gaps and knowledge . Nestle Nutr. Workshop Ser. Pediatr. Program , 57 : 203 – 214 . discussion 215–221
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Frankel , E. N. , Satue-Gracia , T. , Meyer , A. S. and German , J. B. 2002 . Oxidative stability of fish and algae oils containing long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in bulk and in oil-in-water emulsions . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 50 ( 7 ) : 2094 – 2099 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fritsche , K. , Irons , R. , Pompos , L. , Janes , J. , Zheng , Z. and Brown , C. 2005 . Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid impairment of early host resistance against Listeria monocytogenes infection is independent of neutrophil infiltration and function . Cell Immunol. , 235 ( 1 ) : 65 – 71 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Funk , C. D. 2001 . Prostaglandins and leukotrienes: Advances in eicosanoid biology . Science , 294 ( 5548 ) : 1871 – 1875 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galobart , J. , Barroeta , A. C. , Baucells , M. D. , Codony , R. and Ternes , W. 2001 . Effect of dietary supplementation with rosemary extract and alpha-tocopheryl acetate on lipid oxidation in eggs enriched with omega3-fatty acids . Poult. Sci. , 80 ( 4 ) : 460 – 467 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ganeko , N. , Shoda , M. , Hirohara , I. , Bhadra , A. , Ishida , T. Matsuda , H. 2008 . Analysis of volatile flavor compounds of sardine (Sardinops melanostica) by solid phase microextraction . J. Food Sci. , 73 : S83 – S88 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gao , S. , Mooberry , E. S. and Steele , J. L. 1998 . Use of 13C nuclear magnetic resonance and gas chromatography to examine methionine catabolism by lactococci . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 64 ( 12 ) : 4670 – 4675 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garter , B. , Zhou , S. and Brown , A. 2008 . Method for suppression of fishy aromas in food products by proteins. Patent issued to Kellogg Company by USPTO
   Google Scholar
• German , O. L. , Insua , M. F. , Gentili , C. , Rotstein , N. P. and Politi , L. E. 2006 . Docosahexaenoic acid prevents apoptosis of retina photoreceptors by activating the ERK/MAPK pathway . J. Neurochem. , 98 ( 5 ) : 1507 – 1520 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giamarellos-Bourboulis , E. J. , Grecka , P. , Asteriou , A. D. , Grammatikou , M. and Giamarellou , H. 1994 . Do Escherichia coli susceptibilities to various antibiotics decrease in the presence of polyunsaturated fatty acids? A preliminary report . J. Chemother. , 6 ( 1 ) : 39 – 43 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GISSI . 1999 . Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: Results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell’Infarto miocardico . Lancet , 354 ( 9177 ) : 447 – 455 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goburdhun , D. and Jhurree , B. 1995 . Effect of deep-fat frying on fat oxidation in soybean oil . Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. , 46 ( 4 ) : 363 – 371 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham , D. Y. and Sackman , J. W. 1983 . Solubility of calcium soaps of long-chain fatty acids in simulated intestinal environment . Digestive Diseases and Sciences , 28 ( 8 ) : 733 – 736 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gudipati , V. , Sandra , S. , McClements , D. J. and Decker , E. A. 2010 . Oxidative stability and in vitro digestibility of fish oil-in-water emulsions containing multilayered membranes . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 58 : 8093–8099
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guiotto , A. , Calderan , A. , Ruzza , P. and Borin , G. 2005 . Carnosine and carnosine-related antioxidants: A review . Curr. Med. Chem. , 12 ( 20 ) : 2293 – 2315 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gunstone , F. D. 1996 . Fatty Acid and Lipid Chemistry , Glasgow , , UK : Blackie Academic and Professional .
   Google Scholar
• Hack , D. M. , Bordi , P. L. Jr. and Hessert , S. W. Jr. 2009 . Nutrition, sensory evaluation, and performance analysis of hydrogenated frying oils . Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. , 60 : 1 – 15 .
   Google Scholar
• Harris , W. S. , Mozaffarian , D. , Lefevre , M. , Toner , C. D. , Colombo , J. Cunnane , S. C. 2009 . Towards establishing dietary reference intakes for eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids . J. Nutr. , 139 : 804S – 819S .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harwood , J. L. 1988 . Fatty acid metabolism . Ann. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Molecular Biol. , 39 ( 1 ) : 101 – 138 .
   Google Scholar
• Hauswirth , C. B. , Scheeder , M. R. and Beer , J. H. 2004 . High omega-3 fatty acid content in alpine cheese: The basis for an alpine paradox . Circulation , 109 ( 1 ) : 103 – 107 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herrera , E. 2002 . Implications of dietary fatty acids during pregnancy on placental, fetal and postnatal development—A review . Placenta , 23 ( Suppl. A ) : S9 – S19 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herrera , E. , Amusquivar , E. , Lopez-Soldado , I. and Ortega , H. 2006 . Maternal lipid metabolism and placental lipid transfer . Horm. Res. , 65 ( Suppl. 3 ) : 59 – 64 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HHS and USDA . 2005 . Dietary guidelines for Americans Available from www.health.gov/DietaryGuidelines/dga2005/. Accessed January 30, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Hill , B. G. , Haberzettl , P. , Ahmed , Y. , Srivastava , S. and Bhatnagar , A. 2008 . Unsaturated lipid peroxidation-derived aldehydes activate autophagy in vascular smooth-muscle cells . Biochem. J. , 410 ( 3 ) : 525 – 534 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hogan , S. A. , O’Riordan , E. D. and O’Sullivan , M. 2003 . Microencapsulation and oxidative stability of spray-dried fish oil emulsions . J. Microencapsul , 20 ( 5 ) : 675 – 688 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hogstrom , M. , Nordstrom , P. and Nordstrom , A. 2007 . n-3 Fatty acids are positively associated with peak bone mineral density and bone accrual in healthy men: The NO2 Study . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 85 ( 3 ) : 803 – 807 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holian , O. and Nelson , R. 1992 . Action of long-chain fatty acids on protein kinase C activity: Comparison of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids . Anticancer Res. , 12 ( 3 ) : 975 – 980 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Honkatukia , M. , Reese , K. , Preisinger , R. , Tuiskula-Haavisto , M. , Weigend , S. Roito , J. 2005 . Fishy taint in chicken eggs is associated with a substitution within a conserved motif of the FMO3 gene . Genomics , 86 : 225 – 232 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hulbert , A. J. , Turner , N. , Storlien , L. H. and Else , P. L. 2005 . Dietary fats and membrane function: Implications for metabolism and disease . Biol. Rev. Camb. Philos. Soc. , 80 ( 1 ) : 155 – 169 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hwang , D. and Rhee , S. H. 1999 . Receptor-mediated signaling pathways: Potential targets of modulation by dietary fatty acids . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 70 ( 4 ) : 545 – 556 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ICIS . 2009 . Dietary Guidelines for Americans. Available from www.icis.com. Accessed on January 30, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Im , S. and Kurata , T. 2003 . Volatile off-flavor compounds in porcine liver . J. Japan. Soc. Food Sci. Technol. (Nippon Shokuhin Kagaku Kogaku Kaishi) , 50 : 574 – 577 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Innis , S. M. , Sprecher , H. , Hachey , D. , Edmond , J. and Anderson , R. E. 1999 . Neonatal polyunsaturated fatty acid metabolism . Lipids , 34 ( 2 ) : 139 – 149 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobsen , C , Adler , N. J. , Meyer , A. S. , Hartvigsen , S. A. and Lmer , K. 2000 . Oxidation in Fish-Oil-Enriched Mayonnaise: 2. Assessment of the Efficacy of Different Tocopherol Antioxidant Systems by Discriminant Partial Least Squares Regression Analysis Volume , 13–30 European Food Research and Technology, 210
   Google Scholar
• Jacobsen , C. , Adler-Nissen , J. and Meyer , A. S. 1999 . Effect of ascorbic acid on iron release from the emulsifier interface and on the oxidative flavor deterioration in fish oil enriched mayonnaise . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 47 ( 12 ) : 4917 – 4926 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobsen , C. , Hartvigsen , K. , Lund , P. , Meyer , A. S. , Adler-Nissen , J. Holstborg , J. 1999 . Oxidation in fish-oil-enriched mayonnaise 1. Assessment of propyl gallate as an antioxidant by discriminant partial least squares regression analysis . Eur. Food Res. Technol. , 210 ( 1 ) : 13 – 30 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobsen , C. , Hartvigsen , K. , Lund , P. , Thomsen , M. K. , Skibsted , L. H. Hølmer , G. 2001 . Oxidation in fish oil-enriched mayonnaise: 4. Effect of tocopherol concentration on oxidative deterioration . Eur. Food Res. Technol , 212 : 308 – 318 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobsen , C. , Let , M. B. , Nielsen , N. S. and Meyer , A. S. 2008 . Antioxidant strategies for preventing oxidative flavour deterioration of foods enriched with n-3 polyunsaturated lipids: A comparative evaluation . Trends Food Sci. Technol. , 19 ( 2 ) : 76 – 93 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen , R. G. , Ferris , A. M. and Lammi-Keefe , C. J. 1992 . Lipids in human milk and infant formulas . Annu. Rev. Nutr. , 12 : 417 – 441 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jump , D. B. and Clarke , S. D. 1999 . Regulation of gene expression by dietary fat . Annu. Rev. Nutr. , 19 : 63 – 90 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kankaanpaa , P. E. , Salminen , S. J. , Isolauri , E. and Lee , Y. K. 2001 . The influence of polyunsaturated fatty acids on probiotic growth and adhesion . FEMS Microbiol. Lett. , 194 ( 2 ) : 149 – 153 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanwar , R. K. , Macgibbon , A. K. , Black , P. N. , Kanwar , J. R. , Rowan , A. Vale , M. 2008 . Bovine milk fat enriched in conjugated linoleic and vaccenic acids attenuates allergic airway disease in mice . Clin. Exp. Allergy , 38 : 208 – 218 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katsuda , M. S. , McClements , D. J. , Miglioranza , L. H. and Decker , E. A. 2008 . Physical and oxidative stability of fish oil-in-water emulsions stabilized with beta-lactoglobulin and pectin . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 56 ( 14 ) : 5926 – 5931 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ke , S. , Huang , Y. , Decker , E. A. and Hultin , H. O. 2008 . Impact of citric acid on the tenderness, microstructure and oxidative stability of beef muscle . Meat Sci. , 82 ( 1 ) : 113–118
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kellerby , S. S. , McClements , D. J. and Decker , E. A. 2006 . Role of proteins in oil-in-water emulsions on the stability of lipid hydroperoxides . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 54 ( 20 ) : 7879 – 7884 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khanapure , S. P. , Garvey , D. S. , Janero , D. R. and Letts , L. G. 2007 . Eicosanoids in inflammation: Biosynthesis, pharmacology, and therapeutic frontiers . Curr. Top Med. Chem. , 7 ( 3 ) : 311 – 340 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khosla , P. and Hayes , K. C. 1996 . Dietary trans-monounsaturated fatty acids negatively impact plasma lipids in humans: Critical review of the evidence . J. Am. Coll. Nutr. , 15 ( 4 ) : 325 – 339 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kocchar , S. P. 1995 . “ Oxidative Pathways to the Formation of Off-Flavours ” . In Food Taints and Off-Flavours, 2nd ed. , Glasgow , , UK : pp. 168–225. Blackie Academic and Professional .
   Google Scholar
• Kolanowski , W. and Weißbrodt , J. 2008 . Possibilities of fisherman's friend type lozenges fortification with omega-3 LC PUFA by addition of microencapsulated fish oil . J. American Oil Chemists’ Soc. , 85 ( 4 ) : 339 – 345 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Komprda , T. , Zelenka , J. , Fajmonova , E. , Fialova , M. and Kladroba , D. 2005 . Arachidonic acid and long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid contents in meat of selected poultry and fish species in relation to dietary fat sources . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 53 ( 17 ) : 6804 – 6812 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kris-Etherton , P. M. and Hill , A. M. 2008 . N-3 fatty acids: Food or supplements? . J. Am. Diet. Assoc. , 108 ( 7 ) : 1125 – 1130 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laignelet , B. and Dumas , C. 1984 . Lipid oxidation and distribution of oxidized lipids during the mixing of a dough of bread wheat flour . Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft und –Technologie , 17 ( 4 ) : 226 – 230 .
   Google Scholar
• Lauritzen , I. , Blondeau , N. , Heurteaux , C. , Widmann , C. , Romey , G. and Lazdunski , M. 2000 . Polyunsaturated fatty acids are potent neuroprotectors . EMBO J. , 19 ( 8 ) : 1784 – 1793 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee , J. Y. , Kim , Y. S. and Shin , D. H. 2002 . Antimicrobial synergistic effect of linolenic acid and monoglyceride against Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 50 ( 7 ) : 2193 – 2199 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Let , M. B. , Jacobsen , C. and Meyer , A. S. 2007 . Lipid oxidation in milk, yoghurt, and salad dressing enriched with neat fish oil or pre-emulsified fish oil . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 55 ( 19 ) : 7802 – 7809 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lock , A. L. and Bauman , D. E. 2004 . Modifying milk fat composition of dairy cows to enhance fatty acids beneficial to human health . Lipids , 39 ( 12 ) : 1197 – 1206 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lombardi , F. and Terranova , P. 2007 . Anti-arrhythmic properties of N-3 poly-unsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA) . Curr. Med. Chem. , 14 ( 19 ) : 2070 – 2080 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lunden , A. , Gustafsson , V. , Imhof , M. , Gauch , R. and Bosset , J. O. 2002 . High trimethylamine concentration in milk from cows on standard diets is expressed as fishy off-flavour . J. Dairy Res. , 69 ( 3 ) : 383 – 390 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacGibbon , A. K. H. and Taylor , M. W. 2006 . “ Composition and Structure of Bovine Milk Lipids ” . In Advances in Dairy Chemistry, Lipids , Edited by: Fox , P. F. and McSWeeney , P. L. H. Volume 2 , 1 – 42 . New York : Springer Science+Business Media .
   Google Scholar
• Maia , M. R. , Chaudhary , L. C. , Figueres , L. and Wallace , R. J. 2007 . Metabolism of polyunsaturated fatty acids and their toxicity to the microflora of the rumen . Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek , 91 ( 4 ) : 303 – 314 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martini , S. , Thurgood , J. E. , Brothersen , C. , Ward , R. and McMahon , D. J. 2009 . Fortification of reduced-fat Cheddar cheese with n-3 fatty acids: Effect on off-flavor generation . J. Dairy Sci. , 92 ( 5 ) : 1876 – 1884 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masanetz , C. , Guth , H. and Grosch , W. 1998 . Fishy and hay-like off-flavours of dry spinach . Zeitschrift für Lebensmitteluntersuchung und -Forschung A , 206 ( 2 ) : 108 – 113 .
   Google Scholar
• Masoro , E. J. 1977 . Lipids and lipid metabolism . Annu. Rev. Physiol. , 39 : 301 – 321 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCann , J. C. and Ames , B. N. 2005 . Is docosahexaenoic acid, an n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid, required for development of normal brain function? An overview of evidence from cognitive and behavioral tests in humans and animals . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 82 ( 2 ) : 281 – 295 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meijboom , P. W. and Stronk , J. B. A. 1972 . 2-trans,4-cis,7-cis-decatrienal, the fishy off-flavour occurring in strongly autoxidized oils containing linolenic acid or <omega>3,6,9,etc., fatty acids . J. Am. Oil Chemists’ Society , 49 ( 10 ) : 555–558
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller , L. E. , Luhadiya , A. P. and Mehansho , H. 2007 . Concentrated and odorless omega-3 fatty acids. Patent issued by International Bureau to The Procter and Gamble Company, Cincinnati, OH
   Google Scholar
• Nakamura , M. T. , Cheon , Y. , Li , Y. and Nara , T. Y. 2004 . Mechanisms of regulation of gene expression by fatty acids . Lipids , 39 ( 11 ) : 1077 – 1083 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nam , K. C. and Ahn , D. U. 2003 . Use of antioxidants to reduce lipid oxidation and off-odor volatiles of irradiated pork homogenates and patties . Meat Sci. , 63 ( 1 ) : 1 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NCBI . 2009 . Fish oil MedlinePlus supplements. Available from www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/patient-fishoil.html. Accessed on August 1, 2012
   Google Scholar
• Nelson , K. A. S. and Martini , S. 2009 . Increasing omega fatty acid content in cow's milk through diet manipulation: Effect on milk flavor . J. Dairy Sci , 92 ( 4 ) : 1378 – 1386 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nfon , E. , Cousins , I. T. and Broman , D. 2008 . Biomagnification of organic pollutants in benthic and pelagic marine food chains from the Baltic Sea . Sci. Total Environ. , 397 ( 1–3 ) : 190 – 204 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nodari , S. , Metra , M. , Milesi , G. , Manerba , A. , Cesana , B. M. Gheorghiade , M. 2009 . The role of n-3 PUFAs in preventing the arrhythmic risk in patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy . Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. , 23 : 5 – 15 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nutting , D. F. , Kumar , N. S. , Siddiqi , S. A. and Mansbach , C. M. 2nd. 2002 . Nutrient absorption . Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol , 18 ( 2 ) : 168 – 175 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohta , S. , Chang , T. , Kawashima , A. , Nagate , T. , Murase , M. Nakanishi , H. 1994 . Anti methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) activity by linolenic acid isolated from the marine microalga Chlorococcum HS-101 . Bull Environ. Contam. Toxicol. , 52 : 673 – 680 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Passorn , S. , Laoteng , K. , Rachadawong , S. , Tanticharoen , M. and Cheevadhanarak , S. 1999 . Heterologous expression of Mucor rouxii delta(12)-desaturase gene in Saccharomyces cerevisiae . Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. , 263 ( 1 ) : 47 – 51 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patrignani , P. 2001 . Oxidized lipids . Ital. Heart J. , 2 ( 12 ) : 873 – 877 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Perez-Mateos , M. , Boyd , L. and Lanier , T. 2004 . Stability of omega-3 fatty acids in fortified surimi seafoods during chilled storage . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 52 ( 26 ) : 7944 – 7949 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prentice , A. M. 2005 . Macronutrients as sources of food energy . Public Health Nutr. , 8 ( 7A ) : 932 – 939 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prentki , M. and Madiraju , S. R. 2008 . Glycerolipid metabolism and signaling in health and disease . Endocr. Rev. , 29 ( 6 ) : 647 – 676 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quinn , P. J. , Joo , F. and Vigh , L. 1989 . The role of unsaturated lipids in membrane structure and stability . Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol. , 53 ( 2 ) : 71 – 103 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramaswamy , N. , Baer , R. J. , Schingoethe , D. J. , Hippen , A. R. , Kasperson , K. M. and Whitlock , L. A. 2001 . Composition and flavor of milk and butter from cows fed fish oil, extruded soybeans, or their combination . J. Dairy Sci. , 84 ( 10 ) : 2144 – 2151 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Refsgaard , H. H. , Brockhoff , P. M. and Jensen , B. 2000 . Free polyunsaturated fatty acids cause taste deterioration of salmon during frozen storage . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 48 ( 8 ) : 3280 – 3285 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ren , J. , Han , E. J. and Chung , S. H. 2007 . In vivo and in vitro anti-inflammatory activities of alpha-linolenic acid isolated from Actinidia polygama fruits . Arch. Pharm. Res. , 30 ( 6 ) : 708 – 714 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rhee , K. S. 2000 . “ Fatty Acids in Meats and Meat Products ” . In Fatty Acids in Foods and Their Health Implications , Edited by: Chow , C. K. 153 – 174 . New York : Marcel Drekker, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Ruxton , C. H. , Reed , S. C. , Simpson , M. J. and Millington , K. J. 2004 . The health benefits of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: A review of the evidence . J. Hum. Nutr. Diet. , 17 ( 5 ) : 449 – 459 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rymer , C. and Givens , D. I. 2005 . n-3 fatty acid enrichment of edible tissue of poultry: A review . Lipids , 40 ( 2 ) : 121 – 130 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rymer , C. and Givens , D. I. 2006 . Effect of species and genotype on the efficiency of enrichment of poultry meat with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids . Lipids , 41 ( 5 ) : 445 – 451 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saris , W. H. , Asp , N. G. , Bjorck , I. , Blaak , E. , Bornet , F. Brouns , F. 1998 . Functional food science and substrate metabolism . Br. J. Nutr. , 80 ( Suppl. 1 ) : S47 – S75 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Serhan , C. N. 2005 . Novel eicosanoid and docosanoid mediators: Resolvins, docosatrienes, and neuroprotectins . Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care , 8 ( 2 ) : 115 – 121 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Serna-Saldivar , S. O. , Zorrilla , R. , De La Parra , C. , Stagnitti , G. and Abril , R. 2006 . Effect of DHA containing oils and powders on baking performance and quality of white pan bread . Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. , 61 ( 3 ) : 121 – 129 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaw , L. A. , McClements , D. J. and Decker , E. A. 2007 . Spray-dried multilayered emulsions as a delivery method for omega-3 fatty acids into food systems . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 55 ( 8 ) : 3112 – 3119 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sheppard , A. J. , Iverson , J. L. and Weihrauch , J. L. 1978 . “ Composition of selected dietary fats, oils, margarine, and butter ” . In Fatty Acids and Glycerides , Edited by: Kuksis , A. Volume 1 , 314–379 New York : Plenum Press .
   Google Scholar
• Shin , S. Y. , Bajpai , V. K. , Kim , H. R. and Kang , S. C. 2007 . Antibacterial activity of bioconverted eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) against foodborne pathogenic bacteria . Int. J. Food Microbiol , 113 : 233–236
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sinclair , A. J. , Attar-Bashi , N. M. and Li , D. 2002 . What is the role of alpha-linolenic acid for mammals? . Lipids , 37 ( 12 ) : 1113 – 1123 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spector , A. A. and Yorek , M. A. 1985 . Membrane lipid composition and cellular function . J. Lipid. Res. , 26 ( 9 ) : 1015 – 1035 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spolaore , P. , Joannis-Cassan , C. , Duran , E. and Isambert , A. 2006 . Commercial applications of microalgae . J. Biosci. Bioeng. , 101 ( 2 ) : 87 – 96 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Starling , S. 2008 . Omega-3 in infant formula world first Available from www.nutraingredients.com/Industry/Omega-3-in-infant-formula-world-first. Accessed January 20, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Surh , J. , Gu , Y. S. , Decker , E. A. and McClements , D. J. 2005 . Influence of environmental stresses on stability of O/W emulsions containing cationic droplets stabilized by SDS-fish gelatin membranes . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 53 ( 10 ) : 4236 – 4244 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takahata , K. , Monobe , K. , Tada , M. and Weber , P. C. 1998 . The benefits and risks of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids . Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. , 62 ( 11 ) : 2079 – 2085 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tamura , Y. , Hirai , A. , Terano , T. and Saitoh , H. 1992 . Anti-thrombotic and anti-atherogenic action of eicosapentaenoic acid . Nippon. Rinsho. , 50 ( 2 ) : 403 – 407 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tapiero , H. , Ba , G. N. , Couvreur , P. and Tew , K. D. 2002 . Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and eicosanoids in human health and pathologies . Biomed. Pharmacother. , 56 ( 5 ) : 215 – 222 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tataranni , P. A. and Ravussin , E. 1997 . Effect of fat intake on energy balance . Ann. N Y Acad. Sci. , 819 : 37 – 43 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Theurer , M. L. , Block , E. , Sanchez , W. K. and McGuire , M. A. 2009 . Calcium salts of polyunsaturated fatty acids deliver more essential fatty acids to the lactating dairy cow . J. Dairy Sci. , 92 ( 5 ) : 2051 – 2056 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tong , L. M. , Sasaki , S. , McClements , D. J. and Decker , E. A. 2000 . Mechanisms of the antioxidant activity of a high molecular weight fraction of whey . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 48 ( 5 ) : 1473 – 1478 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trumbo , P. , Schlicker , S. , Yates , A. A. and Poos , M. 2002 . Dietary reference intakes for energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein and amino acids . J. Am. Dietetic Assoc. , 102 ( 11 ) : 1621 – 1630 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• USDA . 2005 . Production, supply, and distribution online. Available from www.fas.usda.gov. Accessed on February 8, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Valentine , R. C. and Valentine , D. L. 2004 . Omega-3 fatty acids in cellular membranes: A unified concept . Prog. Lipid Res. , 43 ( 5 ) : 383 – 402 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Venkateshwarlu , G. , Let , M. B. , Meyer , A. S. and Jacobsen , C. 2004a . Chemical and olfactometric characterization of volatile flavor compounds in a fish oil enriched milk emulsion . J. Agr. Food Chem. , 52 ( 2 ) : 311 – 317 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Venkateshwarlu , G. , Let , M. B. , Meyer , A. S. and Jacobsen , C. 2004b . Modeling the sensory impact of defined combinations of volatile lipid oxidation products on fishy and metallic off-flavors . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 52 ( 6 ) : 1635 – 1641 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vuksan , V. , Whitham , D. , Sievenpiper , J. L. , Jenkins , A. L. , Rogovik , A. L. Bazinet , R. P. 2007 . Supplementation of conventional therapy with the novel grain Salba (Salvia hispanica L.) improves major and emerging cardiovascular risk factors in type 2 diabetes: Results of a randomized controlled trial . Diabetes Care , 30 : 2804 – 2810 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waddington , E. I. , Croft , K. D. , Sienuarine , K. , Latham , B. and Puddey , I. B. 2003 . Fatty acid oxidation products in human atherosclerotic plaque: An analysis of clinical and histopathological correlates . Atherosclerosis , 167 ( 1 ) : 111 – 120 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang , C. , Chung , M. , Balk , E. , Kupelnick , B. , DeVine , D. Lawrence , A. 2004 . “ Evidence report/technology assessment no. 94 (Prepared by Tufts-New England Medical Center Evidence-based Practice Center, under contract no. 290-02-0022) ” . In Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on cardiovascular disease , Rockville , MD : Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality . Volume AHRQ publication no. 04-E009-2
   Google Scholar
• Wang , G. and Wang , T. 2008 . Oxidative stability of egg and soy lecithin as affected by transition metal ions and pH in emulsion . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 56 ( 23 ) : 11424 – 11431 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wassall , S. R. and Stillwell , W. 2009 . Polyunsaturated fatty acid-cholesterol interactions: Domain formation in membranes . Biochim. Biophys. Acta , 1788 ( 1 ) : 24 – 32 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whelan , J. 1996 . Antagonistic effects of dietary arachidonic acid and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids . J. Nutr. , 126 ( Suppl. 4 ) : 1086S – 1091S .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whelan , J. and Rust , C. 2006 . Innovative dietary sources of n-3 fatty acids . Annu. Rev. Nutr. , 26 : 75 – 103 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willie , H. J. and Gonus , P. Preparation of fish oil for dietary applications , Belgirate , , Italy Paper presented at the NATO Advanced Research workshop on Dietary omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids: Biological effects and Nitritional essentiality
   Google Scholar
• Yaqoob , P. and Calder , P. C. 2007 . Fatty acids and immune function: new insights into mechanisms . Br. J. Nutr. , 98 ( Suppl. 1 ) : S41 – S45 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yavin , E. , Brand , A. and Green , P. 2002 . Docosahexaenoic acid abundance in the brain: A biodevice to combat oxidative stress . Nutr. Neurosci. , 5 ( 3 ) : 149 – 157 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yep , Y. L. , Li , D. , Mann , N. J. , Bode , O. and Sinclair , A. J. 2002 . Bread enriched with microencapsulated tuna oil increases plasma docosahexaenoic acid and total omega-3 fatty acids in humans . Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr. , 11 ( 4 ) : 285 – 291 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zamaria , N. 2004 . Alteration of polyunsaturated fatty acid status and metabolism in health and disease . Reprod. Nutr. Dev. , 44 ( 3 ) : 273 – 282 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zhou , L. and Nilsson , A. 2001 . Sources of eicosanoid precursor fatty acid pools in tissues . J. Lipid Res. , 42 ( 10 ) : 1521 – 1542 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar