2,672
Views
102
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

The Content of Polyphenolic Compounds in Cocoa Beans (Theobroma cacao L.), Depending on Variety, Growing Region, and Processing Operations: A Review

, &

REFERENCES

  • Addai, F.K. (2010). Natural cocoa as diet-mediated antimalarial prophylaxis. Med. Hypotheses 74:825–830.
  • Adeyeye, E.I., Akinyeye, R.O., Ogunlade, I., Olaofe, O. and Boluwade, J.O. (2010). Effect of farm and industrial processing on the amino acid profile of cocoa beans. Food Chem. 118:357–363.
  • Andres-Lacueva, C., Monagas, M., Khan, M., Izquierdo-Pulido, M., Urpi-Sarda, M., Permanyer, J. and Lamuela-Raventos, R.M. (2008). Flavanol and flavonol contents of cocoa powder products: Influence of the manufacturing process. J. Agric. Food Chem. 56:3111–3117.
  • Anglaaere, L., Cobbina, J., Sinclair, F. and Morag, Mc.D. (2011). The effect of land use systems on tree diversity: Farmer preference and species composition of cocoa-based agroecosystems in Ghana. Agroforest. Syst. 81:249–265.
  • Arlorio, M., Bottini, C., Travaglia, F., Locatelli, M., Bordiga, M., Coisson, J.D., Martelli, A. and Tessitore, L. (2009). Protective activity of Theobroma cacao L. phenolic extract on AML12 and MLP29 liver cells by preventing apoptosis and inducing autophagy. J. Agric. Food Chem. 57:10612–10618.
  • Arlorio, M., Coisson, J.D., Travaglia, F., Varsaldi, F., Miglio, G., Lombardi, G. and Martelli, A. (2005). Antioxidant and biological activity of phenolic pigments from Theobroma cacao hulls extracted with supercritical CO2. Food Res. Int. 38:1009–1014.
  • Arlorio, M., Locatelli, M., Travaglia, F., Coisson, J., Grosso, E., Minassi, A., Appendino, G. and Martelli A. (2008). Roasting impact on the contents of clovamide (N-caffeoyl-l-DOPA) and the antioxidant activity of cocoa beans (Theobroma cacao L.). Food Chem. 106:967–975.
  • Aron, P. and Kennedy, J.A. (2008). Flavan-3-ols: Nature, occurrence and biological activity. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 52:79–104.
  • Baba, S., Osakabe, N., Natsume, M., Muto, Y., Takizawa, T. and Terao, J. (2001). Absorption and urinary excretion of (−)-epicatechin after administration of different levels of cocoa powder or (−)-epicatechin in rats. J. Agric. Food Chem. 49:6050–6056.
  • Bart-Plange, A. and Baryeh, E.A. (2003). The physical properties of category B cocoa beans. J. Food Eng. 60:219–227.
  • Bauer, S.R., Ding, E.L. and Smit, L.A., (2011). Cocoa consumption, cocoa flavonoids, and effects on cardiovascular risk factors: An evidence-based review. Curr. Cardiovasc. Risk Rep. 5:120–127.
  • Beckett, S.T. (2000). The Science of Chocolate. Cocoa Bean Processing, Ch. 3, 2nd ed., Royal Society of Chemistry, York, UK, pp. 54–55.
  • Belscak, A., Komes, D., Horzic, D., Kovacevic Ganic, K. and Karlovic, D. (2009). Comparative study of commercially available cocoa products in terms of their bioactive composition. Food Res. Int. 42:707–716.
  • Bertazzo, A., Comai, S., Brunato, I., Zancato, M. and Costa, C.V. L. (2011). The content of protein and non-protein (free and protein-bound) tryptophan in Theobroma cacao beans. Food Chem. 124:93–96.
  • Bittner, S. (2006). When quinones meet amino acids: Chemical, physical and biological consequences. Amino Acids 30:206–224.
  • Bonvehi, J.S. and Coll, F.V. (1997). Evaluation of bitterness and astringency of polyphenolic compounds in cocoa powder. Food Chem. 60:365–370.
  • Bonvehi, J.S. and Coll, F.V. (2000). Evaluation of purine alkaloids and diketopiperazines contents in processed cocoa powder. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 210:189–195.
  • Bruinsma, K. and Taren, D.L. (1999). Chocolate: Food or drug? J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 99(10):1249–1256.
  • Brunetto, M.R., Gutierrez, L., Delgado, Y., Gallignani, M., Zambrano, A., Gomez, A., Ramos, G. and Romero, C. (2007). Determination of theobromine, theophylline and caffeine in cocoa samples by a high-performance liquid chromatographic method with on-line sample cleanup in a switching-column system. Food Chem. 100:459–467.
  • Bubonja-Sonje, M., Giacometti, J. and Abram, M. (2011). Antioxidant and antilisterial activity of olive oil, cocoa and rosemary extract polyphenols. Food Chem. 127:1821–1827.
  • Buijsse, B., Feskens, E.J. M., Kok, F.J. and Kromhout, D. (2006). Cocoa intake, blood pressure and cardiovascular mortality. Arch.. Intern. Med. 166:411–417.
  • Caligiani, A., Acquotti, D., Cirlini, M. and Palla, G. (2010). 1H NMR study of fermented cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) beans. J. Agric. Food Chem. 58:12105–12111.
  • Caligiani, A., Cirlini, M., Palla, G., Ravaglia, R. and Arlorio, M. (2007). GC-MS detection of chiral markers in cocoa beans of different quality and geographic origin. Chirality 19:329–334.
  • Camu, N., de Winter, T., Addo, S.K., Takrama, J.S.S., Bernaert, H. and de Vuyst, L. (2008). Fermentation of cocoa beans: Influence of microbial activities and polyphenol concentrations on the flavour of chocolate. J. Sci. Food Agric. 88:2288–2297.
  • Cassidy, A., Hanley, B. and Lamuela-Raventos, R.M. (2000). Isoflavones, lignans and stilbenes—origins, metabolism and potential importance to human health. J. Sci. Food Agric. 80:1044–1062.
  • Chang, J., Luo, J. and He, G. (2009). Regulation of polyphenols accumulation by combined overexpression/silencing key enzymes of phyenylpropanoid pathway. Acta Biochim. Biophys. Sin. 123–130
  • Cienfuegos-Jovellanos, E., Quinones, M.D., Muguerza, B., Moulay, L., Miguel, M. and Aleixandre, A. (2009). Antihypertensive effect of a polyphenol-rich cocoa powder industrially processed to preserve the original flavonoids of the cocoa beans. J. Agric. Food Chem. 57:6156–6162.
  • Cienfuegos-Jovellanos Fernandez, E., Pasamar Fernandez, M.A., Fritz, J.F., Arcos Palacios, J.F., Ramon Vidal, D. and Castilla Escobar, Y. (2010). Process for Obtaining Polyphenol-Rich Cocoa Powder with Low fat Content and Cocoa Thus Obtained. United States Patent Application 2010/0062138 A1; Natraceutical Industrial, Spain.
  • Clapperton, J., Hammerstone, J. F., Romanczyk, L. J., Yow, S., Lim, D., Lockwood, R. (1992). Polyphenols and cocoa flavour. In: Proceedings, 16th International Conference of Group Polyphenols, vol. II, Lisbon, Portugal (Groupe Polyphenols) Norbonne, pp. 112–115.
  • Clapperton, J., Yow, S., Chan, J., Lim, D., Lockwood, R., Romanczyk, L. and Hammerstone, J. (1994). The contribution of genotype to cocoa (Theobroma cacao L) flavour. Tropic. Agric.(Trinidad) 71:303–308.
  • Cooper, K.A., Campos-Gimenez, E., Jimenez Alvarez, D., Nagy, K., Donovan, J.L. and Williamson, G. (2007). Rapid reversed phase ultraperformance liquid chromatography analysis of the major cocoa polyphenols and inter-relationships of their concentrations in chocolate. J. Agric. Food Chem. 55:2841–2847.
  • Cooper, K.A., Donovan, J.L., Waterhouse, A.L. and Williamson, G. (2008). Cocoa and health: A decade of research. Brit. J. Nutr. 99:1–11.
  • Corcuera, L.A., Hernando, A., Arbillaga, L., Amezqueta, S., Torres, J.L. and Lopez De Cerain, A. (2010). Effect of a cocoa polyphenol-enriched extract in cells treated with aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A. Abstracts/Toxicol. Lett. 196:337–351.
  • Counet, C., Ouwerx, C., Rosoux, D. and Collin, S. (2004). Relationship between procyanidin and flavor contents of cocoa liquors from different origins. J. Agric. Food Chem. 52:6243–6249.
  • De Brito, E.S., Garcia, NH. P..H. P., Gallao, M., Cortelazzo, A.L., Fevereiro, P.S. and Braga, M.R. (2001). Structural and chemical changes in cocoa (Theobroma cacao L) during fermentation, drying and roasting. J. Sci. Food Agric. 81:281–288.
  • De Brito, E.S., Narain, N., Pezoa Garcia, N.H., Valente, A.L. P. and Pini, G.F. (2002). Effect of glucose and glycine addition to cocoa mass before roasting on Maillard precursor consumption and pyrazine formation. J. Sci. Food Agric. 82:534–537.
  • De Pascual-Teresa, S., Santos-Buelga, C. and Rivas-Gonzalo, J. (2000). Quantitative analysis of flavan-3-ols in Spanish foodstuffs and beverages. J. Agric. Food Chem., 48:5331–5337.
  • Dreosti, I.E. (2000). Antioxidant polyphenols in tea, cocoa, and wine. Nutrition, 16:692–694.
  • Elwers, S. (2002). Phenolische Substanzen und Antioxidatives Potential in kakao—gehalte und prozessierungsbedingte vera nderungen. Abschlussbericht, Stiftung der deutschen Kakao- und Schokoladenwirtschaft. pp 40. Diplomarbeit, Institut fur Angewandte Botanik, Universitat Hamburg.
  • Elwers, S. (2008). Zusammensetzung und histologische Verteilung der phenolischen Substanzen in Samen von Massen- und Edelkakao-Varietäten (Theobroma cacao L.) pp 259. Dissertation, Univ., MIN-Fak., Dept. Biol., Diss.–Hamburg, 2008.
  • Elwers, S., Zambrano, A., Rohsius, C. and Lieberei, R. (2009). Differences between the content of phenolic compounds in Criollo, Forastero and Trinitario cocoa seed (Theobroma cacao L.). Eur. Food Res. Technol. 229:937–948.
  • Engler M.B. and Engler, M.M. (2006). The emerging role of flavonoid-rich cocoa and chocolate in cardiovascular health and disease. Nutr. Rev. 64(3):109–118.
  • Fernandez-Murga, L., Tarin, J.J., Garcia-Perez, M.A. and Cano, A. (2011). The impact of chocolate on cardiovascular health. Maturitas 69:312–321.
  • Ferrazzano, G.F., Amato, I., Ingenito, A., De Natale, A. and Pollio, A. (2009). Anti-cariogenic effects of polyphenols from plant stimulant beverages (cocoa, coffee, tea). Fitoterapia 80:255–262.
  • Fisher, N.D. L., Hughes, M., Gerhard-Herman, M. and Hollenberg, N.K. (2003). Flavanol-rich cocoa induces nitric-oxide-dependent vasodilation in healthy humans. J. Hypertens. 21:2281–2286.
  • Fraga, C.G., Galleano, M., Verstraeten, S.V. and Oteiza, P.I. (2010). Basic biochemical mechanisms behind the health benefits of polyphenols. Mol. Aspects Med. 31:435–445.
  • Franzen, M. and Borgerhoff Mulder, M. (2007). Ecological, economic and social perspectives on cocoa production worldwide. Biodivers. Conserv. 16: 3835–3849.
  • Frauendorfer, F. and Schieberle, P. (2008). Changes in key aroma compounds of Criollo cocoa beans during roasting. J. Agric. Food Chem. 56:10244–10251.
  • Gu, L., House, S.E., Wu, X., Ou, B. and Prior, R.L. (2006). Procyanidin and catechin contents and antioxidant capacity of cocoa and chocolate products. J. Agric. Food Chem. 54:4057–4061.
  • Halbwirth, H. (2010). The Creation and physiological relevance of divergent hydroxylation patterns in the flavonoid pathway. I nt. J. Mol. Sci. 11(2):595–621.
  • Hammerstone, J.F., Lazarus, S.A., Mitchell, A.E., Rucker, R. and Schmitz, H.H. (1999). Identification of procyanidins in cocoa (Theobroma cacao) and chocolate using highperfomance liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry. J. Agric. Food Chem. 47:490–496.
  • Hannum, S.M. and Erdman, J.W. (2000). Emerging health benefits from cocoa and chocolate. J. Med. Food 3:73–75.
  • Hii, C.L., Law, C.L., Cloke, M. and Suzannah, S. (2009a). Thin layer drying kinetics of cocoa and dried product quality. Biosys. Engine. 102:153–161.
  • Hii, C.L., Law, C.L., Suzannah, S., Misnawi and Cloke, M. (2009b). Polyphenols in cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.). Asian J. Food Agro-Ind. 2(4):702–722.
  • Hurst, J.W., Krake, S.H., Bergmeier, S.C., Payne, M.J., Miller, K.B. and Stuart, D.A. (2011). Impact of fermentation, drying, roasting and Dutch processing on flavan-3-ol stereochemistry in cacao beans and cocoa ingredients. Chem. Central J. 5(53):1–10.
  • Jaganath, I.B. and Crozier, A. (2010). Dietary flavonoids and phenolic Compounds. In: Plant Phenolics and Human Health. Biochemistry, Nutrition, and Pharmacology, pp. 1–49. Fraga, C.G., Eds., John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New Jersey.
  • Jagoret, P., Michel-Dounias, I. and Malezieux, E. (2011). Long-term dynamics of cocoa agroforests: A case study in central Cameroon. Agroforest. Syst., 81:267–278.
  • Jalil, A.M. M. and Ismail, A. (2008). Polyphenols in cocoa and cocoa products: Is there a link between antioxidant properties and health? Molecules 13:2190–2219.
  • Jalil, A.M. M., Ismail, A., Pei, C.P., Hamid, M. and Kamaruddin, S.H. S. (2008). Effects of cocoa extract on glucometabolism, oxidative stress, and antioxidant enzymes in obese-diabetic (Ob-db) rats. J. Agric. Food Chem. 56:7877–7884.
  • Jonfia-Essien, W.A., West, G., Alderson, P.G. and Tucker, G. (2008). Phenolic content and antioxidant capacity of hybrid variety cocoa beans. Food Chem. 108:1155–1159.
  • Kattenberg, H.R. (2000). Nutritional functions of cocoa and chocolate. Manuf. Confect. 33–37.
  • Kealey, K.S., Snyder, R.M., Romanczyk, L.J., Geyer, H.M., Myers, M.E., Withcare, E.J., Hammerstone, J.F. and Schmitz, H.H. (1998). Cocoa components, edible products having enhanced polyphenol content, methods of the making same and medical uses. In: Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), WO 98/09533. Mars Inc., USA.
  • Keen, C.L., Holt, R.R., Polagruto, J.A, Wang, J.F. and Schmitz, H.H. (2002). Cocoa flavanols and cardiovascular health. Phytochem. Rev. 1:231–240.
  • Kim, H. and Keeney, P.G. (1984). (–)-Epicatechin content in fermented and unfermented cocoa beans. J. Food Sci. 49:1090–1092.
  • Kofink, M., Papagiannopoulos, M. and Galensa, R. (2007). (−)-Catechin in cocoa and chocolate: Occurrence and analysis of an atypical flavan-3-ol enantiomer. Molecules 12:1274–1288.
  • Kyi, T.M., Daud, W.R. W., Mohammad, A.B., Samsudin, M.W., Kadhum, A.A. H. and Talib, M.Z. M. (2005). The kinetics of polyphenol degradation during the drying of Malaysian cocoa beans. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 40:323–331.
  • Lachenaud, Ph., Paulin, D., Ducamp, M. and Thevenin, J.-M. (2007). Twenty years of agronomic evaluation of wild cocoa trees (Theobroma cacao L.) from French Guiana. Scientia Horticulturae 113:313–321.
  • Lafay, S. and Gil-Izquierdo, A. (2008). Bioavailability of phenolic acids. Phytochem. Rev. 7:301–311
  • Lamuela-Raventos, R.M., Romero-Perez, A.I., Andres-Lacueva, C. and Tornero, A. (2005). Health effects of cocoa flavonoids. Food Sci. Technol. Int. 11:159–176.
  • Lee, D.E., Kang, N.J., Lee, K.M., Lee, B.K., Kim, J.H., Lee, K.W. and Lee, H.J. (2010). Cocoa polyphenols attenuate hydrogen peroxide-induced inhibition of gap-junction intercellular communication by blocking phosphorylation of connexin 43 via the MEK/ERK signaling pathway. J. Nutr. Biochem. 21:680–686.
  • Lin, L.-Z. and Harnly, J.M. (2008). LC-MS profiling and quantification of food phenolic components using a standard analytical approach for all plants. In: Food Science and Technology: New Research, pp 1–103. Greco, L.V., Bruno, M.N., Eds., Nova Publishers, New York.
  • Luna, F., Crouzillat, D., Cirou, L. and Bucheli, P. (2002). Chemical composition and flavor of Ecuadorian cocoa liquor. J. Agric. Food Chem. 50:3527–3532.
  • Maleyki A.M. J. and Amin, I. (2010). Antioxidant properties of cocoa powder. J. Food Biochem. 34:111–128.
  • Manach, C., Scalbert, A., Morand, C., Rémésy, C. and Jiménez, L. (2004). Polyphenols: Food sources and bioavailability. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 79(5):727–747.
  • Mazid, M., Khan, T.A. and Mohammad, F. (2011). Role of secondary metabolites in defense mechanisms of plants. Biol. Med. 3(2) Special Issue:232–249.
  • Miller, K.B., Hurst, W.J., Payne, M.J., Stuart, D.A., Apgar, J., Sweigart, D.S. and Ou, B. (2008). Impact of alkalization on the antioxidant and flavanol content of commercial cocoa powders. J. Agric. Food Chem. 56:8527–8533.
  • Miller, K.B., Stuart, D.A., Smith, N.L., Lee, C.Y., Mchale, N.L., Flanagan, J.A., Ou, B. and Hurst, W.J. (2006). Antioxidant activity and polyphenol and procyanidin contents of selected commercially available cocoa-containing and chocolate products in the united states. J. Agric. Food Chem. 54:4062–4068.
  • Misnawi, Jinap, S., Jamilah, B. and Nazamid, S. (2004). Sensory properties of cocoa liquor as affected by polyphenol concentration and duration of roasting. Food Qual. Prefer. 15:403–409.
  • Moser, G., Leuschner, Ch., Hertel, D., Hölscher, D., Köhler, M., Leitner, D., Michalzik, B., Prihastanti, E., Tjitrosemito, S. and Schwendenmann, L. (2010). The response of cocoa trees (Theobroma cacao) to a 13-month desiccation period in Sulawesi, Indonesia. Agroforest. Syst. 79:171–187.
  • Motamayor, J.C., Risterucci, A.M., Heath, M. and Lanaud, C. (2003). Cacao domestication II: Progenitor germplasm of the Trinitario cacao cultivar. Heredity 91:322–330.
  • Natsume, M., Osakabe, N., Yamagishi, M., Takizawa, T., Nakamura, T., Miyatake, H., Hatano, T. and Yoshida, T. (2000). Analyses of polyphenols in cacao liquor, cocoa, and chocolate by normal-phase and reversed-phase HPLC. Biosci. Biotech. Bioch. 64:2581–2587.
  • Nazaruddin, R., Seng, L.K., Hassan, O. and Said, M. (2006). Effect of pulp preconditioning on the content of polyphenols in cocoa beans (Theobroma Cacao) during fermentation. Ind. Crops Prod., 24:87–94.
  • Niemenak, N., Rohsius, C., Elwers, S., Omokolo Ndoumou, D. and Lieberei, R. (2006). Comparative study of different cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) clones in terms of their phenolics and anthocyanins contents. J. Food Compos. Anal. 19:612–619.
  • Ntiamoah, A. and Afrane, G. (2008). Environmental impacts of cocoa production and processing in Ghana: Life cycle assessment approach. J. Clean. Prod. 16:1735–1740.
  • Oliviero, T., Capuano, E., Cammerer, B. and Fogliano, V. (2009). Influence of roasting on the antioxidant activity and HMF formation of a cocoa bean model systems. J. Agric. Food Chem. 57:147–152.
  • Ortega, N., Reguant, J., Romero, M.-P., Macia, A. and Motilva, M.-J. (2009). Effect of fat content on the digestibility and bioaccessibility of cocoa polyphenol by an in vitro digestion model. J. Agric. Food Chem. 57:5743–5749.
  • Ortega, N., Romero, M.-P., Macia, A., Reguant, J., Angles, N., Morello, J.-R. and Motilva, M.-J. (2008). Obtention and characterization of phenolic extracts from different cocoa sources. J. Agric. Food Chem. 56:9621–9627.
  • Ortega, N., Romero, M.-P., Macia, A., Reguant, J., Angles, N., Morello, J.-R. and Motilva, M.-J. (2010). Comparative study of UPLC–MS/MS and HPLC–MS/MS to determine procyanidins and alkaloids in cocoa samples. J. Food Compos. Anal. 23:298–305.
  • Osakabe, N., Yamagishi, M., Sanbogi, C., Natsume, M., Takizawa, T., Osawa, T. (1998). The antioxidative substances in cacao liquor. J. Nutr. Sci. Vit. 44:313–321.
  • Osman, H., Nasarudin, R. and Lee, S.L. (2004). Extracts of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) leaves and their antioxidation potential. Food Chem. 86:41–45.
  • Othman, A., Ismail, A., Ghani, N.A. and Adenan, I. (2007). Antioxidant capacity and phenolic content of cocoa beans. Food Chem. 100:1523–1530.
  • Othman, A., Jalil, A.M. M., Ismail, A., Ghani, N.A. and Adenan, I. (2010). Epicatechin content and antioxidant capacity of cocoa beans from four different countries. African J. Biotechnol. 9(7):1052–1059.
  • Papalexandratou, Z., Camu, N., Falony, G. and De Vuyst, L. (2011). Comparison of the bacterial species diversity of spontaneous cocoa bean fermentations carried out at selected farms in Ivory Coast and Brazil. Food Microbiol. 28:964–973.
  • Porter, L.J., Ma, Z. and Chant, B.G. (1991). Cocoa procyanidins: Major flavonoids and identification of some minor metabolites. Phytochemistry 30:1657–1663.
  • Prior, R.L. and Gu, L. (2005). Occurrence and biological significance of proanthocyanidins in the American diet. Phytochemistry 66:2264–2280.
  • Quinones, M., Sanchez, D., Muguerza, B., Miguel, M. and Aleixandre, A. (2011). Mechanisms for antihypertensive effect of CocoanOX, a polyphenol-rich cocoa powder, in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Food Res. Int. 44:1203–1208.
  • Radojcic Redovnikovic, I., Delonga, K., Mazor, S., Dragovic-Uzelac, V., Caric, M. and Vorkapic-Furac, J. (2009). Polyphenolic content and composition and antioxidative activity of different cocoa liquors. Czech J. Food Sci. 27:330–337.
  • Ramirez-Sanchez, I., Maya, L., Ceballos, G. and Villarreal, F. (2010). Fluorescent detection of (−)-epicatechin in microsamples from cacao seeds and cocoa products: Comparison with Folin–Ciocalteu method. J. Food Compos. Anal. 23:790–793.
  • Ramiro, E., Franch, A., Castellote, C., Perez-Cano, F.J., Permanyer, J., Izquierdo-Pulido, M. and Castell, M. (2005). Flavonoids from Theobroma cacao down-regulate inflammatory mediators. J. Agric. Food Chem., 53:8506–8511.
  • Ramiro-Puig, E., Urpi-Sarda, M., Perez-Cano, F.J., Franch, A., Castellote, C., Andres-Lacueva C., Izquierdo-Pulido, M. and Castell, M. (2007). Cocoa-enriched diet enhances antioxidant enzyme activity and modulates lymphocyte composition in thymus from young rats. J. Agric. Food Chem. 55:6431–6438.
  • Rice-Evans, C. (2004). Flavonoids and isoflavones: Absorption, metabolism, and bioactivity. Free Radical Bio. Med. 36:827–828.
  • Rodriguez-Campos, J., Escalona-Buendía, H.B., Orozco-Avila, I., Lugo-Cervantes, E. and Jaramillo-Flores, M.E. (2011). Dynamics of volatile and non-volatile compounds in cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) during fermentation and drying processes using principal components analysis. Food Res. Int. 44:250–258.
  • Ruf, F.O. (2011). The myth of complex cocoa agroforests: The case of Ghana. Human Ecology, 39: 373–388.
  • Rusconi, M. and Conti, A. (2010). Theobroma cacao L., the food of the gods: A scientific approach beyond myths and claims. Pharmacol. Res. 61:5–13.
  • Sanbongi, C., Osakabe, N., Natsume, M., Takizawa, T., Gomi, S. and Osawa, T. (1998). Antioxidative polyphenols isolated from Theobroma cacao. J. Agric. Food Chem. 46:454–457.
  • Sanchez-Rabaneda, F., Jauregui, O., Andres-Lacueva, C., Izquierdo-Pulido, M. and Lamuela-Raventos, R.M. (2003). Liquid chromatographic/electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometric study of the phenolic composition of cocoa (Theobroma cacao). J. Mass Spectrom. 38:35–42.
  • Schinella, G., Mosca, S., Cienfuegos-Jovellanos, E., Pasamar, M.A., Muguerza, B., Ramon, D. and Rios, J.L. (2010). Antioxidant properties of polyphenol-rich cocoa products industrially processed. Food Res. Int. 38:1614–1623.
  • Selmi, C., Cocchi, C.A., Lanfredini, M., Keen, C.L. and Gershwin, M.E. (2008). Chocolate at heart: The anti-inflammatory impact of cocoa flavanols. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 52: 1340–1348.
  • Sies, H., Schewe, T., Heiss, C. and Kelm, M. (2005). Cocoa polyphenols and inflammatory mediators. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 81: 304–312.
  • Spangenberg, J.E. and Dionisi, F. (2001). Characterization of cocoa butter and cocoa butter equivalents by bulk and molecular carbon isotope analyses: Implications for vegetable fat quantification in chocolate. J. Agric. Food Chem. 49: 4271–4277.
  • Stark, T., Bareuther, S. and Hofmann, T. (2005). Sensory-guided decomposition of roasted cocoa Nibs (Theobroma cacao) and structure determination of taste-active polyphenols. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53:5407–5418.
  • Steinberg, F.M., Bearden, M.M., and. Keen, C.L. (2003). Cocoa and chocolate flavonoids: Implications for cardiovascular health. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 103:215–223.
  • Summa, C., Raposo, F.C., Mc Court, J., Lo Scalzo, R., Wagner, K.H., Elmadfa, I. and Anklam, E. (2006). Effect of roasting on the radical scavenging of cocoa beans. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 222:368–375.
  • Tomas-Barberan, F.A., Cienfuegos-Jovellanos, E., Marin, A., Muguerza, B., Gil-Izquierdo, A., Cerda, B., Zafrilla, P., Morillas, J., Mulero, J., Ibarra, A., Pasamar, M.A., Ramon D. and Espin, J.C. (2007). A new process to develop a cocoa powder with higher flavonoid monomer content and enhanced bioavailability in healthy humans. J. Agric. Food Chem. 55:3926–3935.
  • Vinson, J.A., Proch, J., Bose, P., Muchler, S., Taffera, P., Shuta, D., Samman, N. and Agbor, G.A. (2006). Chocolate is a powerful ex vivo and in vivo antioxidant, an anti-atherosclerotic agent in an animal model, and significant contributor to antioxidants in European and American diets. J. Agric. Food Chem. 54:8071–8076.
  • Visioli, F., Bernaert, H., Corti, R., Ferri, C., Heptinstall, S., Molinari, E., Poli, A., Serafini, M., Smit, H.J., Vinson, J.A., Violi, F. and Paoletti, R. (2009). Chocolate, lifestyle, and health. Cri. Rev. Food Sci. and Nut. 54:299–312.
  • Wollgast, J. and Anklam, E. (2000). Review on polyphenols in Theobroma cacao: Changes in composition during the manufacture of chocolate and methodology for identification and quantification. Food Res. Int. 33:423–447.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.