Meat, eggs, full-fat dairy, and nutritional boogeymen: Does the way in which animals are raised affect health differently in humans?

References

• Adams, T. H., R. L. Walzem, D. R. Smith, S. Tseng, and S. B. Smith. 2010. Hamburger high in total, saturated and trans-fatty acids decreases HDL cholesterol and LDL particle diameter, and increases TAG, in mildly hypercholesterolaemic men. British Journal of Nutrition 103:91. doi:10.1017/S0007114509991516.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adkins, Y., and D. S. Kelley. 2010. Mechanisms underlying the cardioprotective effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 21:781–92. doi:10.1016/j.jnutbio.2009.12.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Armstrong, B., and R. Doll. 1975. Environmental factors and cancer incidence and mortality in different countries, with special reference to dietary practices. International Journal of Cancer 15:617–31. doi:10.1002/ijc.2910150411.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aro, A., S. Männistö, I. Salminen, M. L. Ovaskainen, V. Kataja, and M. Uusitupa. 2000. Inverse association between dietary and serum conjugated linoleic acid and risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women. Nutrition and Cancer 38:151–57. doi:10.1207/S15327914NC382_2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arya, F., S. Egger, D. Colquhoun, D. Sullivan, S. Pal, and G. Egger. 2010. Differences in postprandial inflammatory responses to a ‘modern’ v. traditional meat meal: a preliminary study. British Journal of Nutrition 104:724–28. doi:10.1017/S0007114510001042.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aubert, J., O. Champigny, P. Saint-Marc, R. Negrel, S. Collins, D. Ricquier, and G. Ailhaud. 1997. Up-Regulation of UCP-2 Gene Expression by PPAR Agonists in Preadipose and Adipose Cells. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 238:606–11. doi:10.1006/bbrc.1997.7348.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blankson, H., J. A. Stakkestad, H. Fagertun, E. Thom, J. Wadstein, and O. Gudmundsen. 2000. Conjugated linoleic acid reduces body fat mass in overweight and obese humans. Journal of Nutrition 130:2943–48. doi:10.1093/jn/130.12.2943.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bovet, P., D. Faeh, G. Madeleine, B. Viswanathan, and F. Paccaud. 2007. Decrease in blood triglycerides associated with the consumption of eggs of hens fed with food supplemented with fish oil. Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases 17:280–87. doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2005.12.010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brouwer, I. A., A. J. Wanders, and M. B. Katan. 2010. Effect of animal and industrial trans fatty acids on HDL and LDL cholesterol levels in humans–a quantitative review. Plos One 5:e9434. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0009434.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, A. W., A. H. Trenkle, and D. C. Beitz. 2011. Diets high in conjugated linoleic acid from pasture-fed cattle did not alter markers of health in young women. Nutrition Research 31:33–41. doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2010.12.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burdge, G. C., S. Tricon, R. Morgan, K. E. Kliem, C. Childs, E. Jones, J. J. Russell, R. F. Grimble, C. M. Williams, P. Yaqoob, et al. 2005. Incorporation of cis-9, trans-11 conjugated linoleic acid and vaccenic acid (trans-11 18:1) into plasma and leucocyte lipids in healthy men consuming dairy products naturally enriched in these fatty acids. British Journal of Nutrition 94:237. doi:10.1079/BJN20051506.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burns-Whitmore, B. L., E. H. Haddad, J. Sabaté, K. Jaceldo-Siegl, J. Tanzman, S. Rajaram. 2010. Effect of n-3 fatty acid enriched eggs and organic eggs on serum lutein in free-living lacto-ovo vegetarians. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 64:1332–37. doi:10.1038/ejcn.2010.140.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burns-Whitmore, B., E. Haddad, J. Sabaté, and S. Rajaram. 2014. Effects of supplementing n-3 fatty acid enriched eggs and walnuts on cardiovascular disease risk markers in healthy free-living lacto-ovo-vegetarians: a randomized, crossover, free-living intervention study. Nutrition Journal 13:1–9. doi:10.1186/1475-2891-13-29.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calder, P. C. 2013. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammatory processes: nutrition or pharmacology? British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 75:645–62. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2125.2012.04374.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cesano, A., S. Visonneau, J. A. Scimeca, D. Kritchevsky, and D. Santoli. 1998. Opposite effects of linoleic acid and conjugated linoleic acid on human prostatic cancer in SCID mice. Anticancer Research 18:1429–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chajès, V., F. Lavillonnière, P. Ferrari, M. L. Jourdan, M. Pinault, V. Maillard, J. L. Sébédio, and P. Bougnoux. 2002. Conjugated linoleic acid content in breast adipose tissue is not associated with the relative risk of breast cancer in a population of French patients. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 11(7):672–3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Champ, C. E., M. V. Mishra, T. N. Showalter, N. Ohri, A. P. Dicker, and N. L. Simone. 2013. Dietary recommendations during and after cancer treatment: consistently inconsistent? Nutrition and Cancer 65:430–39. doi:10.1080/01635581.2013.757629.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Champ, C. E., J. S. Volek, J. Siglin, L. Jin, and N. L. Simone. 2012. Weight gain, metabolic syndrome, and breast cancer recurrence: are dietary recommendations supported by the data? International Journal of Breast Cancer 2012:9. doi:10.1155/2012/506868.
   Google Scholar
• Cho, K., Y. Song, and D. Kwon. 2016. Conjugated linoleic acid supplementation enhances insulin sensitivity and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma and glucose transporter type 4 protein expression in the skeletal muscles of rats during endurance exercise. Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences 19:20–27.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clandinin, M. T., S. L. Cook, S. D. Konrad, Y. K. Goh, and M. A. French. 1999. The effect of palmitic acid on lipoprotein cholesterol levels and endogenous cholesterol synthesis in hyperlipidemic subjects. Lipids 34 (Suppl), S121–4. doi:10.1007/BF02562257.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cohen, L. A., Z. Zhao, B. Pittman, and J. Scimeca. 2003. Effect of soy protein isolate and conjugated linoleic acid on the growth of Dunning R-3327-AT-1 rat prostate tumors. The Prostate 54:169–80. doi:10.1002/pros.10127.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corl, B. A., D. M. Barbano, D. E. Bauman, and C. Ip. 2003. cis-9, trans-11 CLA derived endogenously from trans-11 18:1 reduces cancer risk in rats. Journal of Nutrition 133:2893–900. doi:10.1093/jn/133.9.2893.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daley, C., A. Abbott, P. Doyle, G. Nader, and S. Larson. 2010. A review of fatty acid profiles and antioxidant content in grass-fed and grain-fed beef. Nutrition Journal 9:10. doi:10.1186/1475-2891-9-10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De La Torre, A., E. Debiton, P. Juanéda, D. Durand, J. M. Chardigny, C. Barthomeuf, D. Bauchart, and D. Gruffat. 2006. Beef conjugated linoleic acid isomers reduce human cancer cell growth even when associated with other beef fatty acids. British Journal of Nutrition 95:346–52. doi:10.1079/BJN20051634.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Desroches, S., P. Y. Chouinard, I. Galibois, L. Corneau, J. Delisle, B. Lamarche, P. Couture, and N. Bergeron. 2005. Lack of effect of dietary conjugated linoleic acids naturally incorporated into butter on the lipid profile and body composition of overweight and obese men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 82:309–19. doi:10.1093/ajcn/82.2.309.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doll, R., and A. B. Hill. 1950. Smoking and carcinoma of the lung; preliminary report. British Medical Journal 2:739–48. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.4682.739.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farrell, D. J. 1998. Enrichment of hen eggs with n-3 long-chain fatty acids and evaluation of enriched eggs in humans. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 68:538–44. doi:10.1093/ajcn/68.3.538.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferrier, L. K., L. J. Caston, S. Leeson, J. Squires, B. J. Weaver, B. J. Holub. 1995. alpha-Linolenic acid- and docosahexaenoic acid-enriched eggs from hens fed flaxseed: influence on blood lipids and platelet phospholipid fatty acids in humans. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 62:81–86. doi:10.1093/ajcn/62.1.81.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferrier, L. K., L. Caston, S. Leeson, E. J. Squires, B. Celi, L. Thomas, and B. J. Holub. 1992. Changes in serum lipids and platelet fatty acid composition following consumption of eggs enriched in alpha-linolenic acid (LnA). Food Research International 25:263–68. doi:10.1016/0963-9969(92)90122-L.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• French, P., C. Stanton, F. Lawless, E. G. O'Riordan, F. J. Monahan, and P. J. Caffrey, A. P. Moloney. 2000. Fatty acid composition, including conjugated linoleic acid, of intramuscular fat from steers offered grazed grass, grass silage, or concentrate-based diets. Journal of Animal Science 78:2849–55. doi:10.2527/2000.78112849x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaullier, J.-M., J. Halse, K. Høye, K. Kristiansen, H. Fagertun, H. Vik, and O. Gudmundsen. 2005. Supplementation with conjugated linoleic acid for 24 months is well tolerated by and reduces body fat mass in healthy, overweight humans. Journal of Nutrition 135:778–84. doi:10.1093/jn/135.4.778.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gillingham, L. G., L. Caston, S. Leeson, K. Hourtovenko, and B. J. Holub. 2005. The effects of consuming docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)-enriched eggs on serum lipids and fatty acid compositions in statin-treated hypercholesterolemic male patients. Food Research International 38:1117–23. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2005.03.006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilmore, L. A., R. L. Walzem, S. F. Crouse, D. R. Smith, T. H. Adams, V. Vaidyanathan, X. Cao, and S. B. Smith. 2011. Consumption of high-oleic acid ground beef increases HDL-Cholesterol concentration but both high- and low-oleic acid ground beef decrease HDL particle diameter in normocholesterolemic men. Journal of Nutrition 141:1188–94. doi:10.3945/jn.110.136085.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gnagnarella, P., S. Gandini, C. La Vecchia, and P. Maisonneuve. 2008. Glycemic index, glycemic load, and cancer risk: a meta-analysis. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 87:1793–801. doi:10.1093/ajcn/87.6.1793.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodwin, P. J., M. Ennis, K. I. Pritchard, M. E. Trudeau, J. Koo, S. K. Taylor, N. Hood. 2012. Insulin- and obesity-related variables in early-stage breast cancer: correlations and time course of prognostic associations. Journal of Clinical Oncology 30:164–71. doi:10.1200/JCO.2011.36.2723.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guadagni, F., P. Ferroni, R. Palmirotta, I. Portarena, V. Formica, and M. Roselli Review. TNF/VEGF cross-talk in chronic inflammation-related cancer initiation and progression: an early target in anticancer therapeutic strategy. In Vivo (Athens, Greece) 21(2):147–61.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanahan, D., and R. A. Weinberg. 2000. The Hallmarks of cancer. Cell 100:57–70. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81683-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heinze, V. M., and A. B. Actis. 2012. Dietary conjugated linoleic acid and long-chain n -3 fatty acids in mammary and prostate cancer protection: a review. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 63:66–78. doi:10.3109/09637486.2011.598849.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hibbeln, J. R., L. R. G. Nieminen, T. L. Blasbalg, J. A. Riggs, and W. E. M. Lands. 2006. Healthy intakes of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids: estimations considering worldwide diversity. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 83:1483S–93S. doi:10.1093/ajcn/83.6.1483S.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hubbard, N. E., D. Lim, and K. L. Erickson. 2003. Effect of separate conjugated linoleic acid isomers on murine mammary tumorigenesis. Cancer Letters 190:13–19. doi:10.1016/S0304-3835(02)00515-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunter, D. J., D. Spiegelman, H. O. Adami, L. Beeson, P. A. van den Brandt, A. R. Folsom, G. E. Fraser, R. A. Goldbohm, S. Graham, G. R. Howe, et al. 1996. Cohort studies of fat intake and the risk of breast cancer — a pooled analysis. New England Journal of Medicine 334:356–61. doi:10.1056/NEJM199602083340603.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Intorre, F., M. S. Foddai, E. Azzini, B. Martin, M. C. Montel, G. Catasta, E. Toti, E. Finotti, L. Palomba, E. Venneria, et al. 2011. Differential effect of cheese fatty acid composition on blood lipid profile and redox status in normolipidemic volunteers: a pilot study. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 62:660–69. doi:10.3109/09637486.2011.569491.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Intorre, F., E. Venneria, E. Finotti, M. S. Foddai, E. Toti, G. Catasta, L. Palomba, E. Azzini, A. Fumagalli, G. Maiani. 2013. Fatty acid content of serum lipid fractions and blood lipids in normolipidaemic volunteers fed two types of cheese having different fat compositions: a pilot study. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 64:185–93. doi:10.3109/09637486.2012.710893.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ip, C., S. F. Chin, J. A. Scimeca, and M. W. Pariza. 1991. Mammary Cancer Prevention by conjugated dienoic derivative of linoleic acid. Cancer Research 51:6118–24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ip, M. M., P. A. Masso-Welch, and C. Ip. 2003. Prevention of mammary cancer with conjugated linoleic acid: role of the stroma and the epithelium. Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia 8:103–18. doi:10.1023/A:1025739506536.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ip, M. M., P. A. Masso-Welch, S. F. Shoemaker, W. K. Shea-Eaton, and C. Ip. 1999. Conjugated linoleic acid inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis of normal rat mammary epithelial cells in primary culture. Experimental Cell Research 250:22–34. doi:10.1006/excr.1999.4499.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jeong, S.-H., D. Kang, M.-W. Lim, C. S. Kang, and H. J. Sung. 2010. Risk assessment of growth hormones and antimicrobial residues in meat. Toxicology Research 26:301–13. doi:10.5487/TR.2010.26.4.301.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jiang, Z. R., and J. S. Sim. 1993. Consumption of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid eggs and… Nutrition (Burbank, Los Angeles County, Calif.) 9 (6):513–18.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joshipura, K. J., F. B. Hu, J. E. Manson, M. J. Stampfer, E. B. Rimm, F. E. Speizer, G. Colditz, A. Ascherio, B. Rosner, D. Spiegelman, et al. 2001. The effect of fruit and vegetable intake on risk for coronary heart disease. Annals of Internal Medicine 134:1106–14. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-134-12-200106190-00010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Key, T. J. 2011. Fruit and vegetables and cancer risk. British Journal of Cancer 104:6–11. doi:10.1038/sj.bjc.6606032.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krebs-Smith, S. M., P. M. Guenther, A. F. Subar, S. I. Kirkpatrick, and K. W. Dodd. 2010. Americans do not meet federal dietary recommendations. Journal of Nutrition 140:1832–38. doi:10.3945/jn.110.124826.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kritchevsky, S. B., and D. Kritchevsky. 1992. Serum cholesterol and cancer risk: an epidemiologic perspective. Annual Review of Nutrition 12:391–416. doi:10.1146/annurev.nu.12.070192.002135.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larsen, T. M., S. Toubro, O. Gudmundsen, and A. Astrup. 2006. Conjugated linoleic acid supplementation for 1 y does not prevent weight or body fat regain. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 83:606–12. doi:10.1093/ajcn.83.3.606.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larsson, S. C., L. Bergkvist, and A. Wolk. 2005. High-fat dairy food and conjugated linoleic acid intakes in relation to colorectal cancer incidence in the Swedish Mammography Cohort. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 82:894–900. doi:10.1093/ajcn/82.4.894.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larsson, S. C., L. Bergkvist, and A. Wolk. 2009. Conjugated linoleic acid intake and breast cancer risk in a prospective cohort of Swedish women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 90:556–60. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2009.27480.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lavillonnière, F., V. Chajès, J. C. Martin, J. L. Sébédio, C. Lhuillery, and P. Bougnoux. 2003. Dietary purified cis-9,trans-11 conjugated linoleic acid isomer has anticarcinogenic properties in chemically induced mammary tumors in rats. Nutrition and Cancer 45:190–94. doi:10.1207/S15327914NC4502_08.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehnen, T. E., M. R. da Silva, A. Camacho, A. Marcadenti, and A. M. Lehnen. 2015. A review on effects of conjugated linoleic fatty acid (CLA) upon body composition and energetic metabolism. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition 12:36. doi:10.1186/s12970-015-0097-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehrer, S., E. J. Diamond, S. Stagger, N. N. Stone, and R. G. Stock. 2002. Increased serum insulin associated with increased risk of prostate cancer recurrence. The Prostate 50:1–3. doi:10.1002/pros.10026.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis, N. M., K. Schalch, S. E. Scheideler, and N. Lincoln Lewis. 2000. Serum lipid response to n-3 fatty acid enriched eggs in persons with hypercholesterolemia "serum lipid response to n-3 fatty acid enriched eggs in persons with.
   Google Scholar
• Liu, S., W. C. Willett, M. J. Stampfer, F. B. Hu, M. Franz, L. Sampson, C. H. Hennekens, and J. E. Manson. 2000. A prospective study of dietary glycemic load, carbohydrate intake, and risk of coronary heart disease in US women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 71:1455–61. doi:10.1093/ajcn/71.6.1455.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maki, K. C., M. D. Van Elswyk ME, M. A. Seeley, P. E. Veith, S. P. Hess, K. A. Ingram, J. J. Halvorson, E. M. Calaguas, and M. H. Davidson. 2003. Lipid responses in Mildly Hypertriglyceridemic men and women to consumption of Docosahexaenoic acid-enriched eggs. International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research 73:357–68. doi:10.1024/0300-9831.73.5.357.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martins, S. V., A. Madeira, P. A. Lopes, V. M. Pires, C. M. Alfaia, J. A. Prates, T. Moura, and G. Soveral. 2015. Adipocyte membrane glycerol permeability is involved in the anti-adipogenic effect of conjugated linoleic acid. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 458:356–61. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2015.01.116.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McAfee, A. J., E. M. McSorley, G. J. Cuskelly, A. M. Fearon, B. W. Moss, J. A. Beattie, J. M. Wallace, M. P. Bonham, and J. J. Strain. 2011. Red meat from animals offered a grass diet increases plasma and platelet n-3 PUFA in healthy consumers. British Journal of Nutrition 105:80–89. doi:10.1017/S0007114510003090.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer, B., and R. Groot. 2017. Effects of Omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on cardiovascular mortality: the importance of the dose of DHA. Nutrients 9:1305. doi:10.3390/nu9121305.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Dea, K. 1988. (Deakin U.. G. (Australia). D. of H. N. Kangaroo meat – polyunsaturated and low in fat: ideal for cholesterol-lowering diets. [Conference paper], Aust. Zool.
   Google Scholar
• O'Shea, M., J. Bassaganya-Riera, and I. C. M. Mohede. 2004. Immunomodulatory properties of conjugated linoleic acid. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 79:1199S–206S. doi:10.1093/ajcn/79.6.1199S.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oh, S. Y., J. Ryue, C. H. Hsieh, and D. E. Bell. 1991. Eggs enriched in omega-3 fatty acids and alterations in lipid concentrations in plasma and lipoproteins and in blood pressure. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 54:689–95. doi:10.1093/ajcn/54.4.689.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, Y. K., and E. A. Yetley. 1993. Intakes and food sources of fructose in the United States. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 58:737S–47S. doi:10.1093/ajcn/58.5.737S.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rose, D. P., and J. M. Connolly. 1999. Omega-3 fatty acids as cancer chemopreventive agents. Pharmacology & Therapeutics 83:217–44. doi:10.1016/S0163-7258(99)00026-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rose, D. P., J. M. Connolly, and M. Coleman. 1996. Effect of omega-3 fatty acids on the progression of metastases after the surgical excision of human breast cancer cell solid tumors growing in nude mice. 2:1751–56.
   Google Scholar
• Schoenfeld, J. D., and J. P. A. Ioannidis. 2013. Is everything we eat associated with cancer? A systematic cookbook review. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 97:127–34. doi:10.3945/ajcn.112.047142.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulze, M. B., S. Liu, E. B. Rimm, J. E. Manson, W. C. Willett, and F. B. Hu. 2004. Glycemic index, glycemic load, and dietary fiber intake and incidence of type 2 diabetes in younger and middle-aged women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 80:348–56. doi:10.1093/ajcn/80.2.348.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simopoulos, A. P. 2002. Omega-3 fatty acids in inflammation and autoimmune diseases. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 21:495–505. doi:10.1080/07315724.2002.10719248.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sindelar, C. A., S. B. Scheerger, S. L. Plugge, K. Eskridge, R. C. Wander, and N. M. Lewis. 2004. Serum lipids of physically active adults consuming omega-3 fatty acid-enriched eggs or conventional eggs. Nutrition Research 24:731–39. doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2004.05.003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sofi, F., A. Buccioni, F. Cesari, A. M. Gori, S. Minieri, L. Mannini, A. Casini, G. F. Gensini, R. Abbate, and M. Antongiovanni. 2010. Effects of a dairy product (pecorino cheese) naturally rich in cis-9, trans-11 conjugated linoleic acid on lipid, inflammatory and haemorheological variables: a dietary intervention study. Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases 20(2):117–24. doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2009.03.004. Epub 2009 May 27.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Surai, P., A. MacPherson, B. Speake, and N. Sparks. 2000. Designer egg evaluation in a controlled trial. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 54:298–305. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1600939.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takahashi, Y., M. Kushiro, K. Shinohara, and T. Ide. 2002. Dietary conjugated linoleic acid reduces body fat mass and affects gene expression of proteins regulating energy metabolism in mice. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part B, Biochemistry & Molecular Biology 133:395–404. doi:10.1016/S1096-4959(02)00164-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tholstrup, T., M. Raff, S. Basu, P. Nonboe, K. Sejrsen, and E. M. Straarup. 2006. Effects of butter high in ruminant trans and monounsaturated fatty acids on lipoproteins, incorporation of fatty acids into lipid classes, plasma C-reactive protein, oxidative stress, hemostatic variables, and insulin in healthy young men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 83:237–43. doi:10.1093/ajcn/83.2.237.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tholstrup, T., B. Sandström, J. E. Hermansen, and G. Hølmer. 1998. Effect of modified dairy fat on postprandial and fasting plasma lipids and lipoproteins in healthy young men. Lipids 33:11–21. doi:10.1007/s11745-998-0175-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tricon, S., G. C. Burdge, E. L. Jones, J. J. Russell, S. El-Khazen, E. Moretti, W. L. Hall, A. B. Gerry, D. S. Leake, R. F. Grimble, et al. 2006. Effects of dairy products naturally enriched with cis-9,trans-11 conjugated linoleic acid on the blood lipid profile in healthy middle-aged men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 83:744–53. doi:10.1093/ajcn/83.4.744.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Elswyk, M. E., S. D. Hatch, G. G. Stella, P. K. Mayo, and K. S. Kubena. 1998. Poultry-based alternatives for enhancing the omega:3 fatty acid content of american diets. in The Return of w3 Fatty Acids into the Food Supply 83:102–15 (KARGER). doi:10.1159/000059657.
   Google Scholar
• Watras, A. C., A. C. Buchholz, R. N. Close, Z. Zhang, and D. A. Schoeller. 2007. The role of conjugated linoleic acid in reducing body fat and preventing holiday weight gain. International Journal of Obesity 31:481–87. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803437.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willett, W. C., D. J. Hunter, M. J. Stampfer, G. Colditz, J. E. Manson, D. Spiegelman, B. Rosner, C. H. Hennekens, and F. E. Speizer. 1992. Dietary fat and fiber in relation to risk of breast cancer. Jama 268:2037. doi:10.1001/jama.1992.03490150089030.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willett, W. C., M. J. Stampfer, G. A. Colditz, B. A. Rosner, C. H. Hennekens, and F. E. Speizer. 1987. Dietary fat and the risk of breast cancer. New England Journal of Medicine 316:22–28. doi:10.1056/NEJM198701013160105.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xie, Y. R., J. R. Busboom, D. P. Cornforth, H. T. Shenton, C. T. Gaskins, K. A. Johnson, J. J. Reeves, R. W. Wright, and J. D. Cronrath. 1996. Effects of time on feed and post-mortem aging on palatability and lipid composition of crossbred Wagyu beef. Meat Science 43:157–66. doi:10.1016/0309-1740(96)84587-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, H., J. Holcroft, B. W. Glickman, and J. G. de Boer. 2003. Conjugated linoleic acid inhibits mutagenesis by 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine in the prostate of Big Blue rats. Mutagenesis 18:195–200. doi:10.1093/mutage/18.2.195.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, J., H. P. Wang, L. M. Zhou, L. Zhou, T. Chen, and L. Q. Qin. 2015. Effect of conjugated linoleic acid on blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled trials. Lipids in Health and Disease 14:11. doi:10.1186/s12944-015-0010-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yeganeh, A., C. G. Taylor, J. Poole, L. Tworek, and P. Zahradka. 2016. Trans10, cis12 conjugated linoleic acid inhibits 3T3-L1 adipocyte adipogenesis by elevating β-catenin levels. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta – Molecular and Cell Biology of Lipids 1861:363–70. doi:10.1016/j.bbalip.2016.01.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou, X.-R., C.-H. Sun, J.-R. Liu, and D. Zhao. 2008. Dietary conjugated linoleic acid increases PPARγ gene expression in adipose tissue of obese rat, and improves insulin resistance. Growth Hormone & IGF Research 18:361–68. doi:10.1016/j.ghir.2008.01.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar