Epigallocatechin gallate as a nutraceutical to potentially target the metabolic syndrome: novel insights into therapeutic effects beyond its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties

References

• Aggarwal, V., H. S. Tuli, M. Tania, S. Srivastava, E. E. Ritzer, A. Pandey, D. Aggarwal, T. S. Barwal, A. Jain, G. Kaur, et al. 2020. Molecular mechanisms of action of epigallocatechin gallate in cancer: Recent trends and advancement. Seminars in Cancer Biology 80: 256–275. doi: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2020.05.011.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alipour, M., R. Malihi, S. A. Hosseini, A. Abbasnezhad, A. Ghavami, H. A. Shahmohammadi, and M. Ghanavati. 2018. The effects of catechins on related risk factors with Type 2 diabetes: A review. Progress in Nutrition 20 (1):12–20. doi: 10.23751/pn.v20i1.6228.
   Google Scholar
• Almatroodi, S. A., A. Almatroudi, A. A. Khan, F. A. Alhumaydhi, M. A. Alsahli, and A. H. Rahmani. 2020. Potential therapeutic targets of epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), the most abundant catechin in green tea, and its role in the therapy of various types of cancer. Molecules 25 (14):3146. doi: 10.3390/molecules25143146.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alomar, M. J. 2014. Factors affecting the development of adverse drug reactions (Review article). Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal : SPJ : The Official Publication of the Saudi Pharmaceutical Society 22 (2):83–94. doi: 10.1016/j.jsps.2013.02.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andreu-Fernández, V., L. Almeida Toledano, N. Pizarro, E. Navarro-Tapia, M. D. Gómez-Roig, R. de la Torre, and Ó. García-Algar. 2020. Bioavailability of epigallocatechin gallate administered with different nutritional strategies in healthy volunteers. Antioxidants (Basel) 9 (5):440. doi: 10.3390/antiox9050440.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Arazi, H., N. Samami, J. Kheirkhah, and B. Taati. 2014. The effect of three weeks green tea extract consumption on blood pressure, heart rate responses to a single bout resistance exercise in hypertensive women. High Blood Pressure & Cardiovascular Prevention : The Official Journal of the Italian Society of Hypertension 21 (3):213–9. doi: 10.1007/s40292-014-0048-1.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• aus dem Siepen, F., S. J. Buss, F. Andre, S. Seitz, E. Giannitsis, H. Steen, H. A. Katus, and A. V. Kristen. 2015. Extracellular remodeling in patients with wild-type amyloidosis consuming epigallocatechin-3-gallate: Preliminary results of T1 mapping by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging in a small single center study. Clinical Research in Cardiology 104 (8):640–7. doi: 10.1007/s00392-015-0826-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Awortwe, C., P. S. Fasinu, and B. Rosenkranz. 2014. Application of Caco-2 cell line in herb-drug interaction studies: Current approaches and challenges. Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences : A Publication of the Canadian Society for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Societe Canadienne Des Sciences Pharmaceutiques 17 (1):1–19. doi: 10.18433/j30k63.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bae, J., N. Kim, Y. Shin, S.-Y. Kim, and Y.-J. Kim. 2020. Activity of catechins and their applications. Biomedical Dermatology 4 (1) doi: 10.1186/s41702-020-0057-8.
   Google Scholar
• Bajerska, J., S. Mildner-Szkudlarz, and J. Walkowiak. 2015. Effects of rye bread enriched with green tea extract on weight maintenance and the characteristics of metabolic syndrome following weight loss: A pilot study. Journal of Medicinal Food 18 (6):698–705. doi: 10.1089/jmf.2014.0032.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Basu, A., M. Du, K. Sanchez, M. J. Leyva, N. M. Betts, S. Blevins, M. Wu, C. E. Aston, and T. J. Lyons. 2011. Green tea minimally affects biomarkers of inflammation in obese subjects with metabolic syndrome. Nutrition 27 (2):206–13. doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2010.01.015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Basu, A., K. Sanchez, M. J. Leyva, M. Wu, N. M. Betts, C. E. Aston, and T. J. Lyons. 2010. Green tea supplementation affects body weight, lipids, and lipid peroxidation in obese subjects with metabolic syndrome. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 29 (1):31–40. doi: 10.1080/07315724.2010.10719814.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bazyar, H., S. A. Hosseini, S. Saradar, D. Mombaini, M. Allivand, M. Labibzadeh, and M. Alipour. 2021. Effects of epigallocatechin-3-gallate of Camellia sinensis leaves on blood pressure, lipid profile, atherogenic index of plasma and some inflammatory and antioxidant markers in type 2 diabetes mellitus patients: A clinical trial. Journal of Complementary and Integrative Medicine 18 (2):405–11. doi: 10.1515/jcim-2020-0090.
   Google Scholar
• Benlloch, M., M. Cuerda Ballester, E. Drehmer, J. L. Platero, S. Carrera-Juliá, M. M. López-Rodríguez, J. J. Ceron, A. Tvarijonaviciute, M. Á. Navarro, M. L. Moreno, et al. 2020. Possible reduction of cardiac risk after supplementation with epigallocatechin gallate and increase of ketone bodies in the blood in patients with multiple sclerosis. A pilot study. Nutrients 12 (12):3792. doi: 10.3390/nu12123792.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borges, C. M., A. Papadimitriou, D. A. Duarte, J. M. Lopes de Faria, and J. B. Lopes de Faria. 2016. The use of green tea polyphenols for treating residual albuminuria in diabetic nephropathy: A double-blind randomised clinical trial. Scientific Reports 6:28282. doi: 10.1038/srep28282.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boschmann, M., and F. Thielecke. 2007. The effects of epigallocatechin-3-gallate on thermogenesis and fat oxidation in obese men: A pilot study. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 26 (4):389s–95s. doi: 10.1080/07315724.2007.10719627.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boulmokh, Y., K. Belguidoum, F. Meddour, and H. Amira-Guebailia. 2021. Investigation of antioxidant activity of epigallocatechin gallate and epicatechin as compared to resveratrol and ascorbic acid: Experimental and theoretical insights. Structural Chemistry 32 (5):1907–23. doi: 10.1007/s11224-021-01763-5.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braegelmann, C., D. Niebel, S. Ferring-Schmitt, T. Fetter, J. Landsberg, M. Hölzel, M. Effern, N. Glodde, S. Steinbuch, T. Bieber, et al. 2022. Epigallocatechin-3-gallate exhibits anti-inflammatory effects in a human interface dermatitis model-implications for therapy. Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology : JEADV 36 (1):144–53. doi: 10.1111/jdv.17710.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewer, M. S. 2011. Natural antioxidants: Sources, compounds, mechanisms of action, and potential applications. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 10 (4):221–47. doi: 10.1111/j.1541-4337.2011.00156.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, A. L., J. Lane, J. Coverly, J. Stocks, S. Jackson, A. Stephen, L. Bluck, A. Coward, and H. Hendrickx. 2009. Effects of dietary supplementation with the green tea polyphenol epigallocatechin-3-gallate on insulin resistance and associated metabolic risk factors: Randomized controlled trial. The British Journal of Nutrition 101 (6):886–94. doi: 10.1017/s0007114508047727.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, A. L., J. Lane, C. Holyoak, B. Nicol, A. E. Mayes, and T. Dadd. 2011. Health effects of green tea catechins in overweight and obese men: A randomised controlled cross-over trial. British Journal of Nutrition 106 (12):1880–9. doi: 10.1017/S0007114511002376.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byun, E. B., W. S. Kim, N. Y. Sung, and E. H. Byun. 2018. Epigallocatechin-3-gallate regulates anti-inflammatory action through 67-kDa laminin receptor-mediated tollip signaling induction in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated human intestinal epithelial cells. Cellular Physiology and Biochemistry : International Journal of Experimental Cellular Physiology, Biochemistry, and Pharmacology 46 (5):2072–81. doi: 10.1159/000489447.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cai, Z. Y., X. M. Li, J. P. Liang, L. P. Xiang, K. R. Wang, Y. L. Shi, R. Yang, M. Shi, J. H. Ye, J. L. Lu, et al. 2018. Bioavailability of tea catechins and its improvement. Molecules 23 (9):2346. doi: 10.3390/molecules23092346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cazzola, R., and M. Rondanelli. 2020. N-Oleoyl-phosphatidyl-ethanolamine and epigallo catechin-3-gallate mitigate oxidative stress in overweight and class I obese people on a low-calorie diet. Journal of Medicinal Food 23 (3):319–25. doi: 10.1089/jmf.2019.0145.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cerbin-Koczorowska, M., M. Waszyk-Nowaczyk, P. Bakun, T. Goslinski, and T. Koczorowski. 2021. Current view on green tea catechins formulations, their interactions with selected drugs, and prospective applications for various health conditions. Applied Sciences 11 (11):4905. doi: 10.3390/app11114905.
   Google Scholar
• Ceriello, A., F. Prattichizzo, M. Phillip, I. B. Hirsch, C. Mathieu, and T. Battelino. 2022. Glycaemic management in diabetes: Old and new approaches. The Lancet. Diabetes & Endocrinology 10 (1):75–84. doi: 10.1016/S2213-8587(21)00245-X.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chatree, S., C. Sitticharoon, P. Maikaew, K. Pongwattanapakin, I. Keadkraichaiwat, M. Churintaraphan, C. Sripong, R. Sririwichitchai, and S. Tapechum. 2021. Epigallocatechin gallate decreases plasma triglyceride, blood pressure, and serum kisspeptin in obese human subjects. Experimental Biology and Medicine 246 (2):163–76. doi: 10.1177/1535370220962708.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, I. J., C. Y. Liu, J. P. Chiu, and C. H. Hsu. 2016. Therapeutic effect of high-dose green tea extract on weight reduction: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Clinical Nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland) 35 (3):592–9. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2015.05.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, L., M. J. Lee, H. Li, and C. S. Yang. 1997. Absorption, distribution, elimination of tea polyphenols in rats. Drug Metabolism and Disposition 25 (9):1045–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, Z. M., and Z. Lin. 2015. Tea and human health: Biomedical functions of tea active components and current issues. Journal of Zhejiang University Science B 16 (2):87–102. doi: 10.1631/jzus.B1500001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chow, H. H., Y. Cai, I. A. Hakim, J. A. Crowell, F. Shahi, C. A. Brooks, R. T. Dorr, Y. Hara, and D. S. Alberts. 2003. Pharmacokinetics and safety of green tea polyphenols after multiple-dose administration of epigallocatechin gallate and polyphenon E in healthy individuals. Clinical Cancer Research 9 (9):3312–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chow, H. H., and I. A. Hakim. 2011. Pharmacokinetic and chemoprevention studies on tea in humans. Pharmacological Research 64 (2):105–12. doi: 10.1016/j.phrs.2011.05.007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chow, H. H., I. A. Hakim, D. R. Vining, J. A. Crowell, J. Ranger-Moore, W. M. Chew, C. A. Celaya, S. R. Rodney, Y. Hara, and D. S. Alberts. 2005. Effects of dosing condition on the oral bioavailability of green tea catechins after single-dose administration of Polyphenon E in healthy individuals. Clinical Cancer Research : An Official Journal of the American Association for Cancer Research 11 (12):4627–33. doi: 10.1158/1078-0432.Ccr-04-2549.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chu, C., J. Deng, Y. Man, and Y. Qu. 2017. Green tea extracts epigallocatechin-3-gallate for different treatments. BioMed Research International 2017:5615647. doi: 10.1155/2017/5615647.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cione, E., C. La Torre, R. Cannataro, M. C. Caroleo, P. Plastina, and L. Gallelli. 2019. Quercetin, epigallocatechin gallate, curcumin, and resveratrol: From dietary sources to human MicroRNA modulation. Molecules 25 (1):63. doi: 10.3390/molecules25010063.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collado-Mateo, D., A. M. Lavín-Pérez, C. Peñacoba, J. Del Coso, M. Leyton-Román, A. Luque-Casado, P. Gasque, M. Á. Fernández-Del-Olmo, and D. Amado-Alonso. 2021. Key factors associated with adherence to physical exercise in patients with chronic diseases and older adults: An umbrella review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18 (4):2023. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18042023.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cory, H., S. Passarelli, J. Szeto, M. Tamez, and J. Mattei. 2018. The role of polyphenols in human health and food systems: A mini-review. Frontiers in Nutrition 5:87. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2018.00087.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dai, W., C. Ruan, Y. Zhang, J. Wang, J. Han, Z. Shao, Y. Sun, and J. Liang. 2020. Bioavailability enhancement of EGCG by structural modification and nano-delivery: A review. Journal of Functional Foods 2020 v65:103732. doi: 10.1016/j.jff.2019.103732.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de la Rubia Ortí, J. E., J. L. Platero, I. H. Yang, J. J. Ceron, A. Tvarijonaviciute, P. S. Sabater, M. Benlloch, D. Sancho-Cantus, and S. Sancho. 2021. Possible role of butyrylcholinesterase in fat loss and decreases in inflammatory levels in patients with multiple sclerosis after treatment with epigallocatechin gallate and coconut oil: A pilot study. Nutrients 13 (9):3230. doi: 10.3390/nu13093230.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de la Torre, R., S. de Sola, M. Farré, L. Xicota, A. Cuenca-Royo, J. Rodriguez, A. León, K. Langohr, M. Gomis-González, G. Hernandez, et al. 2020. A phase 1, randomized double-blind, placebo controlled trial to evaluate safety and efficacy of epigallocatechin-3-gallate and cognitive training in adults with Fragile X syndrome. Clinical Nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland) 39 (2):378–87., doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2019.02.028.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de la Torre, R., S. de Sola, G. Hernandez, M. Farré, J. Pujol, J. Rodriguez, J. M. Espadaler, K. Langohr, A. Cuenca-Royo, A. Principe, et al. 2016. Safety and efficacy of cognitive training plus epigallocatechin-3-gallate in young adults with Down’s syndrome (TESDAD): A double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled, phase 2 trial. Lancet Neurology 15 (8):801–10. doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(16)30034-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De la Torre, R., S. De Sola, M. Pons, A. Duchon, M. M. de Lagran, M. Farré, M. Fitó, B. Benejam, K. Langohr, J. Rodriguez, et al. 2014. Epigallocatechin-3-gallate, a DYRK1A inhibitor, rescues cognitive deficits in down syndrome mouse models and in humans. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research 58 (2):278–88. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.201300325.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Oliveira, R. M. M. 2012. Quantification of catechins and caffeine from green tea (Camellia sinensis) infusions, extract, and ready-to-drink beverages. Ciência e Tecnologia de Alimentos 32 (1):163–6.
   Google Scholar
• Dekant, W., K. Fujii, E. Shibata, O. Morita, and A. Shimotoyodome. 2017. Safety assessment of green tea based beverages and dried green tea extracts as nutritional supplements. Toxicology Letters 277:104–8. doi: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2017.06.008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dettlaff, K., M. Stawny, M. Ogrodowczyk, A. Jelińska, W. Bednarski, D. Wątróbska-Świetlikowska, R. W. Keck, O. A. Khan, I. H. Mostafa, and J. Jankun. 2017. Formulation and characterization of EGCG for the treatment of superficial bladder cancer. International Journal of Molecular Medicine 40 (2):329–36. doi: 10.3892/ijmm.2017.3024.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dludla, P. V., B. B. Nkambule, B. Jack, Z. Mkandla, T. Mutize, S. Silvestri, P. Orlando, L. Tiano, J. Louw, and S. E. Mazibuko-Mbeje. 2018. Inflammation and oxidative stress in an obese state and the protective effects of gallic acid. Nutrients 11 (1):23. doi: 10.3390/nu11010023.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dludla, P. V., B. B. Nkambule, S. E. Mazibuko-Mbeje, T. M. Nyambuya, P. Orlando, S. Silvestri, F. Marcheggiani, I. Cirilli, K. Ziqubu, F. Ndevahoma, et al. 2021. Tea consumption and its effects on primary and secondary prevention of coronary artery disease: Qualitative synthesis of evidence from randomized controlled trials. Clinical Nutrition ESPEN 41:77–87. doi: 10.1016/j.clnesp.2020.11.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dostal, A. M., A. Arikawa, L. Espejo, S. Bedell, M. S. Kurzer, and N. R. Stendell-Hollis. 2017. Green tea extract and catechol-O-methyltransferase genotype modify the post-prandial serum insulin response in a randomised trial of overweight and obese post-menopausal women. Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics 30 (2):166–76. doi: 10.1111/jhn.12408.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dostal, A. M., A. Arikawa, L. Espejo, and M. S. Kurzer. 2016. Long-term supplementation of green tea extract does not modify adiposity or bone mineral density in a randomized trial of overweight and obese postmenopausal women. The Journal of Nutrition 146 (2):256–64. doi: 10.3945/jn.115.219238.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elbling, L., I. Herbacek, R. M. Weiss, C. Jantschitsch, M. Micksche, C. Gerner, H. Pangratz, M. Grusch, S. Knasmüller, and W. Berger. 2010. Hydrogen peroxide mediates EGCG-induced antioxidant protection in human keratinocytes. Free Radical Biology & Medicine 49 (9):1444–52. doi: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2010.08.008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellis, L. Z., W. Liu, Y. Luo, M. Okamoto, D. Qu, J. H. Dunn, and M. Fujita. 2011. Green tea polyphenol epigallocatechin-3-gallate suppresses melanoma growth by inhibiting inflammasome and IL-1β secretion. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 414 (3):551–6. doi: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2011.09.115.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eng, Q. Y., P. V. Thanikachalam, and S. Ramamurthy. 2018. Molecular understanding of Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) in cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 210:296–310. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2017.08.035.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evageliou, V., E. Panagopoulou, and I. Mandala. 2019. Encapsulation of EGCG and esterified EGCG derivatives in double emulsions containing Whey protein isolate, bacterial cellulose and salt. Food Chemistry 281:171–7. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.12.105.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernández-García, J. C., F. Cardona, and F. J. Tinahones. 2013. Inflammation, oxidative stress and metabolic syndrome: Dietary modulation. Current Vascular Pharmacology 11 (6):906–19. doi: 10.2174/15701611113116660175.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernández-Sánchez, A., E. Madrigal-Santillán, M. Bautista, J. Esquivel-Soto, A. Morales-González, C. Esquivel-Chirino, I. Durante-Montiel, G. Sánchez-Rivera, C. Valadez-Vega, and J. A. Morales-González. 2011. Inflammation, oxidative stress, and obesity. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 12 (5):3117–32. doi: 10.3390/ijms12053117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferreira, M. A., D. M. Silva, A. C. de Morais, Jr., J. F. Mota, and P. B. Botelho. 2016. Therapeutic potential of green tea on risk factors for type 2 diabetes in obese adults - a review. Obesity Reviews : An Official Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity 17 (12):1316–28. doi: 10.1111/obr.12452.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fraga, C. G., K. D. Croft, D. O. Kennedy, and F. A. Tomás-Barberán. 2019. The effects of polyphenols and other bioactives on human health. Food & Function 10 (2):514–28. doi: 10.1039/c8fo01997e.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fu, M., S. Fu, S. Ni, L. Zou, Y. Liu, and T. Hong. 2017. Anti-inflammatory effect of epigallocatechin gallate in a mouse model of ovalbumin-induced allergic rhinitis. International Immunopharmacology 49:102–8. doi: 10.1016/j.intimp.2017.05.030.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gan, R. Y., H. B. Li, Z. Q. Sui, and H. Corke. 2018. Absorption, metabolism, anti-cancer effect and molecular targets of epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG): An updated review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 58 (6):924–41. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2016.1231168.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gloro, R., I. Hourmand-Ollivier, B. Mosquet, L. Mosquet, P. Rousselot, E. Salamé, M. A. Piquet, and T. Dao. 2005. Fulminant hepatitis during self-medication with hydroalcoholic extract of green tea. European Journal of Gastroenterology & Hepatology 17 (10):1135–7. doi: 10.1097/00042737-200510000-00021.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grassi, D., G. Desideri, P. D. Giosia, M. De Feo, E. Fellini, P. Cheli, L. Ferri, and C. Ferri. 2013. Tea, flavonoids, and cardiovascular health: Endothelial protection. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 98 (6 Suppl):1660s–6s. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.113.058313.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green, R. J., A. S. Murphy, B. Schulz, B. A. Watkins, and M. G. Ferruzzi. 2007. Common tea formulations modulate in vitro digestive recovery of green tea catechins. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research 51 (9):1152–62. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.200700086.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grundy, S. M. 2016. Metabolic syndrome update. Trends in Cardiovascular Medicine 26 (4):364–73. doi: 10.1016/j.tcm.2015.10.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grzesik, M., K. Naparło, G. Bartosz, and I. Sadowska-Bartosz. 2018. Antioxidant properties of catechins: Comparison with other antioxidants. Food Chemistry 241:480–92. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.08.117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guo, T., D. Song, L. Cheng, and X. Zhang. 2019. Interactions of tea catechins with intestinal microbiota and their implication for human health. Food Science and Biotechnology 28 (6):1617–25. doi: 10.1007/s10068-019-00656-y.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Han, Y. C., H. F. Chiu, Y. T. Ho, K. Venkatakrishnan, and C. K. Wang. 2020. Improved bioavailability of EGCG after complexation with royal jelly protein. Journal of Food Biochemistry 44 (9):e13372. doi: 10.1111/jfbc.13372.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayakawa, S., T. Ohishi, N. Miyoshi, Y. Oishi, Y. Nakamura, and M. Isemura. 2020. Anti-cancer effects of green tea epigallocatchin-3-gallate and coffee chlorogenic acid. Molecules 25 (19):4553. doi: 10.3390/molecules25194553.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• He, J., L. Xu, L. Yang, and X. Wang. 2018. Epigallocatechin gallate is the most effective catechin against antioxidant stress via hydrogen peroxide and radical scavenging activity. Medical Science Monitor : International Medical Journal of Experimental and Clinical Research 24:8198–206. doi: 10.12659/msm.911175.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill, A. M., A. M. Coates, J. D. Buckley, R. Ross, F. Thielecke, and P. R. Howe. 2007. Can EGCG reduce abdominal fat in obese subjects? Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 26 (4):396s–402s. doi: 10.1080/07315724.2007.10719628.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hinojosa-Nogueira, D., S. Pérez-Burillo, S. Pastoriza de la Cueva, and J. Á. Rufián-Henares. 2021. Green and white teas as health-promoting foods. Food & Function 12 (9):3799–819. doi: 10.1039/d1fo00261a.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hosseini, S., M. Alipour, M. Zakerkish, B. Cheraghian, and P. Ghandil. 2020. Effects of epigallocatechin gallate on total antioxidant capacity, biomarkers of systemic low-grade inflammation and metabolic risk factors in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: The role of FTO-rs9939609 polymorphism. Archives of Medical Science 17 (6):1722–9. doi: 10.5114/aoms.2020.95903.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsu, C. H., Y. L. Liao, S. C. Lin, T. H. Tsai, C. J. Huang, and P. Chou. 2010. Does supplementation with green tea extract improve insulin resistance in obese type 2 diabetics? A randomized, double-blind, and placebo-controlled clinical trial. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 16 (2):157–63. doi: 10.1089/acm.2009.0188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu, J., D. Webster, J. Cao, and A. Shao. 2018. The safety of green tea and green tea extract consumption in adults - Results of a systematic review. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology : RTP 95:412–33. doi: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2018.03.019.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang, J., Y. Wang, Z. Xie, Y. Zhou, Y. Zhang, and X. Wan. 2014. The anti-obesity effects of green tea in human intervention and basic molecular studies. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 68 (10):1075–87. doi: 10.1038/ejcn.2014.143.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang, S. M., Y. H. Chang, Y. C. Chao, J. A. Lin, C. H. Wu, C. Y. Lai, K. C. Chan, S. T. Tseng, and G. C. Yen. 2013. EGCG-rich green tea extract stimulates sRAGE secretion to inhibit S100A12-RAGE axis through ADAM10-mediated ectodomain shedding of extracellular RAGE in type 2 diabetes. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research 57 (12):2264–8. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.201300275.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hung, P. F., B. T. Wu, H. C. Chen, Y. H. Chen, C. L. Chen, M. H. Wu, H. C. Liu, M. J. Lee, and Y. H. Kao. 2005. Antimitogenic effect of green tea (-)-epigallocatechin gallate on 3T3-L1 preadipocytes depends on the ERK and Cdk2 pathways. American Journal of Physiology Cell Physiology 288 (5):C1094–108. doi: 10.1152/ajpcell.00569.2004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hursel, R., and M. S. Westerterp-Plantenga. 2009. Green tea catechin plus caffeine supplementation to a high-protein diet has no additional effect on body weight maintenance after weight loss. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 89 (3):822–30. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2008.27043.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huseynov, M. B., and N. A. Abdullaev. 2021. Antimutagenic effects of the composition from green tea leaves extracts and caucasian persimmon fruits. Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine 172 (2):143–5. doi: 10.1007/s10517-021-05351-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hussain, T., B. Tan, Y. Yin, F. Blachier, M. C. Tossou, and N. Rahu. 2016. Oxidative stress and inflammation: What polyphenols can do for us? Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity 2016:7432797. doi: 10.1155/2016/7432797.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Diabetes Federation. 2022. IDF diabetes atlas 2021. Accessed July 01, 2022. https://diabetesatlas.org/.
   Google Scholar
• Kadowaki, M., N. Sugihara, T. Tagashira, K. Terao, and K. Furuno. 2008. Presence or absence of a gallate moiety on catechins affects their cellular transport. The Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 60 (9):1189–95. doi: 10.1211/jpp.60.9.0011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kale, A., S. Gawande, S. Kotwal, S. Netke, W. Roomi, V. Ivanov, A. Niedzwiecki, and M. Rath. 2010. Studies on the effects of oral administration of nutrient mixture, quercetin and red onions on the bioavailability of epigallocatechin gallate from green tea extract. Phytotherapy Research 24 (S1):S48–S55. doi: 10.1002/ptr.2899.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Khan, N., and H. Mukhtar. 2007. Tea polyphenols for health promotion. Life Sciences 81 (7):519–33. doi: 10.1016/j.lfs.2007.06.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khan, N., and H. Mukhtar. 2013. Tea and health: Studies in humans. Current Pharmaceutical Design 19 (34):6141–7. doi: 10.2174/1381612811319340008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kida, K., M. Suzuki, N. Matsumoto, F. Nanjo, and Y. Hara. 2000. Identification of biliary metabolites of (-)-epigallocatechin gallate in rats. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 48 (9):4151–5. doi: 10.1021/jf000386x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, H. S., M. J. Quon, and J. A. Kim. 2014. New insights into the mechanisms of polyphenols beyond antioxidant properties; lessons from the green tea polyphenol, epigallocatechin 3-gallate. Redox Biology 2:187–95. doi: 10.1016/j.redox.2013.12.022.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, J. J., Y. Tan, L. Xiao, Y.-L. Sun, and X. Qu. 2013. Green tea polyphenol epigallocatechin-3-gallate enhance glycogen synthesis and inhibit lipogenesis in hepatocytes. BioMed Research International 2013:1–8. doi: 10.1155/2013/920128.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kohri, T., F. Nanjo, M. Suzuki, R. Seto, N. Matsumoto, M. Yamakawa, H. Hojo, Y. Hara, D. Desai, S. Amin, et al. 2001. Synthesis of (-)-[4-3H]epigallocatechin gallate and its metabolic fate in rats after intravenous administration. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 49 (2):1042–8. doi: 10.1021/jf0011236.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kondo, K., M. Kurihara, N. Miyata, T. Suzuki, and M. Toyoda. 1999. Scavenging mechanisms of (-)-epigallocatechin gallate and (-)-epicatechin gallate on peroxyl radicals and formation of superoxide during the inhibitory action. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 27 (7–8):855–63. doi: 10.1016/S0891-5849(99)00133-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kovacs, E. M., M. P. Lejeune, I. Nijs, and M. S. Westerterp-Plantenga. 2004. Effects of green tea on weight maintenance after body-weight loss. British Journal of Nutrition 91 (3):431–7. doi: 10.1079/BJN20041061.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kristen, A. V., S. Lehrke, S. Buss, D. Mereles, H. Steen, P. Ehlermann, S. Hardt, E. Giannitsis, R. Schreiner, U. Haberkorn, et al. 2012. Green tea halts progression of cardiac transthyretin amyloidosis: An observational report. Clinical Research in Cardiology 101 (10):805–13. doi: 10.1007/s00392-012-0463-z.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kucera, O., V. Mezera, A. Moravcova, R. Endlicher, H. Lotkova, Z. Drahota, and Z. Cervinkova. 2015. In vitro toxicity of epigallocatechin gallate in rat liver mitochondria and hepatocytes. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity 2015:476180. doi: 10.1155/2015/476180.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuriyama, S., T. Shimazu, K. Ohmori, N. Kikuchi, N. Nakaya, Y. Nishino, Y. Tsubono, and I. Tsuji. 2006. Green tea consumption and mortality due to cardiovascular disease, cancer, and all causes in Japan: The Ohsaki study. JAMA 296 (10):1255–65. doi: 10.1001/jama.296.10.1255.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kwon, D. H., H. J. Cha, H. Lee, S. H. Hong, C. Park, S. H. Park, G. Y. Kim, S. Kim, H. S. Kim, H. J. Hwang, et al. 2019. Protective effect of glutathione against oxidative stress-induced cytotoxicity in RAW 264.7 Macrophages through activating the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor-2/heme oxygenase-1 pathway. Antioxidants (Basel) 8 (4):82. doi: 10.3390/antiox8040082.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lakka, T. A., and D. E. Laaksonen. 2007. Physical activity in prevention and treatment of the metabolic syndrome. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism = Physiologie Appliquee, Nutrition et Metabolisme 32 (1):76–88. doi: 10.1139/h06-113.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lambert, J. D., and R. J. Elias. 2010. The antioxidant and pro-oxidant activities of green tea polyphenols: A role in cancer prevention. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 501 (1):65–72. doi: 10.1016/j.abb.2010.06.013.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lambert, J. D., M. J. Lee, L. Diamond, J. Ju, J. Hong, M. Bose, H. L. Newmark, and C. S. Yang. 2006. Dose-dependent levels of epigallocatechin-3-gallate in human colon cancer cells and mouse plasma and tissues. Drug Metabolism and Disposition: The Biological Fate of Chemicals 34 (1):8–11. doi: 10.1124/dmd.104.003434.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lambert, J. D., M. J. Lee, H. Lu, X. Meng, J. J. Hong, D. N. Seril, M. G. Sturgill, and C. S. Yang. 2003. Epigallocatechin-3-gallate is absorbed but extensively glucuronidated following oral administration to mice. The Journal of Nutrition 133 (12):4172–7. doi: 10.1093/jn/133.12.4172.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, M. J., P. Maliakal, L. Chen, X. Meng, F. Y. Bondoc, S. Prabhu, G. Lambert, S. Mohr, and C. S. Yang. 2002. Pharmacokinetics of tea catechins after ingestion of green tea and (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate by humans: Formation of different metabolites and individual variability. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 11 (10 Pt 1):1025–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Legeay, S., M. Rodier, L. Fillon, S. Faure, and N. Clere. 2015. Epigallocatechin gallate: A review of its beneficial properties to prevent metabolic syndrome. Nutrients 7 (7):5443–68. doi: 10.3390/nu7075230.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liang, Y., M. S. M. Ip, and J. C. W. Mak. 2019. (-)-Epigallocatechin-3-gallate suppresses cigarette smoke-induced inflammation in human cardiomyocytes via ROS-mediated MAPK and NF-κB pathways. Phytomedicine : International Journal of Phytotherapy and Phytopharmacology 58:152768. doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2018.11.028.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lim, S. C. L., C. P. Hor, K. H. Tay, A. Mat Jelani, W. H. Tan, H. B. Ker, T. S. Chow, M. Zaid, W. K. Cheah, H. H. Lim, et al. 2022. Efficacy of ivermectin treatment on disease progression among adults with mild to moderate COVID-19 and comorbidities: The I-TECH randomized clinical trial. JAMA Internal Medicine 182 (4):426–35. doi: 10.1001/jamainternmed.2022.0189.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin, L. C., M. N. Wang, and T. H. Tsai. 2008. Food-drug interaction of (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate on the pharmacokinetics of irinotecan and the metabolite SN-38. Chemico-Biological Interactions 174 (3):177–82. doi: 10.1016/j.cbi.2008.05.033.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, D., J. T. Perkins, and B. Hennig. 2016. EGCG prevents PCB-126-induced endothelial cell inflammation via epigenetic modifications of NF-κB target genes in human endothelial cells. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 28:164–70. doi: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2015.10.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, H. W., Y. C. Chan, M. F. Wang, C. C. Wei, and S. J. Chang. 2015. Dietary (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate supplementation counteracts aging-associated skeletal muscle insulin resistance and fatty liver in senescence-accelerated mouse. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 63 (38):8407–17. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b02501.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu, H., X. Meng, and C. S. Yang. 2003. Enzymology of methylation of tea catechins and inhibition of catechol-O-methyltransferase by (-)-epigallocatechin gallate. Drug Metabolism and Disposition: The Biological Fate of Chemicals 31 (5):572–9. doi: 10.1124/dmd.31.5.572.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu, T.-M., C.-C. Lee, J.-L. Mau, and S.-D. Lin. 2010. Quality and antioxidant property of green tea sponge cake. Food Chemistry 119 (3):1090–5. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.08.015.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ma, Y., G. Liu, M. Tang, J. Fang, and H. Jiang. 2021. Epigallocatechin gallate can protect mice from acute stress induced by LPS while stabilizing gut microbes and serum metabolites levels. Frontiers in Immunology 12: 640305. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.640305.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahlangu, T., P. V. Dludla, T. M. Nyambuya, V. Mxinwa, S. E. Mazibuko-Mbeje, I. Cirilli, F. Marcheggiani, L. Tiano, J. Louw, and B. B. Nkambule. 2020. A systematic review on the functional role of Th1/Th2 cytokines in type 2 diabetes and related metabolic complications. Cytokine 126:154892. doi: 10.1016/j.cyto.2019.154892.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mangine, G. T., A. M. Gonzalez, A. J. Wells, W. P. McCormack, M. S. Fragala, J. R. Stout, and J. R. Hoffman. 2012. The effect of a dietary supplement (N-oleyl-phosphatidyl-ethanolamine and epigallocatechin gallate) on dietary compliance and body fat loss in adults who are overweight: A double-blind, randomized control trial. Lipids in Health and Disease 11:127. doi: 10.1186/1476-511x-11-127.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McArthur, D., A. Dumas, K. Woodend, S. Beach, and D. Stacey. 2014. Factors influencing adherence to regular exercise in middle-aged women: A qualitative study to inform clinical practice. BMC Women’s Health 14:49. doi: 10.1186/1472-6874-14-49.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKay, D. L., and J. B. Blumberg. 2002. The role of tea in human health: An update. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 21 (1):1–13. doi: 10.1080/07315724.2002.10719187.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mielgo-Ayuso, J., L. Barrenechea, P. Alcorta, E. Larrarte, J. Margareto, and I. Labayen. 2014. Effects of dietary supplementation with epigallocatechin-3-gallate on weight loss, energy homeostasis, cardiometabolic risk factors and liver function in obese women: Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. British Journal of Nutrition 111 (7):1263–71. doi: 10.1017/S0007114513003784.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mochizuki, M., S. Yamazaki, K. Kano, and T. Ikeda. 2002. Kinetic analysis and mechanistic aspects of autoxidation of catechins. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1569 (1–3):35–44. doi: 10.1016/S0304-4165(01)00230-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mokgalaboni, K., Y. Ntamo, K. Ziqubu, T. M. Nyambuya, B. B. Nkambule, S. E. Mazibuko-Mbeje, K. B. Gabuza, N. Chellan, L. Tiano, and P. V. Dludla. 2021. Curcumin supplementation improves biomarkers of oxidative stress and inflammation in conditions of obesity, type 2 diabetes and NAFLD: Updating the status of clinical evidence. Food & Function 12 (24):12235–49. doi: 10.1039/D1FO02696H.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moon, H. S., H. G. Lee, Y. J. Choi, T. G. Kim, and C. S. Cho. 2007. Proposed mechanisms of (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate for anti-obesity. Chemico-Biological Interactions 167 (2):85–98. doi: 10.1016/j.cbi.2007.02.008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Most, J., G. H. Goossens, J. W. Jocken, and E. E. Blaak. 2014. Short-term supplementation with a specific combination of dietary polyphenols increases energy expenditure and alters substrate metabolism in overweight subjects. International Journal of Obesity 38 (5):698–706. doi: 10.1038/ijo.2013.231.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Most, J., J. Penders, M. Lucchesi, G. H. Goossens, and E. E. Blaak. 2017. Gut microbiota composition in relation to the metabolic response to 12-week combined polyphenol supplementation in overweight men and women. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 71 (9):1040–5. doi: 10.1038/ejcn.2017.89.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Most, J., S. Timmers, I. Warnke, J. W. Jocken, M. van Boekschoten, P. de Groot, I. Bendik, P. Schrauwen, G. H. Goossens, and E. E. Blaak. 2016. Combined epigallocatechin-3-gallate and resveratrol supplementation for 12 wk increases mitochondrial capacity and fat oxidation, but not insulin sensitivity, in obese humans: A randomized controlled trial. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 104 (1):215–27. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.115.122937.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Most, J., I. Warnke, M. V. Boekschoten, J. W. E. Jocken, P. de Groot, A. Friedel, I. Bendik, G. H. Goossens, and E. E. Blaak. 2018. The effects of polyphenol supplementation on adipose tissue morphology and gene expression in overweight and obese humans. Adipocyte 7 (3):190–6. doi: 10.1080/21623945.2018.1469942.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mthembu, S. X. H., S. E. Mazibuko-Mbeje, K. Ziqubu, T. A. Nyawo, N. Obonye, T. M. Nyambuya, B. B. Nkambule, S. Silvestri, L. Tiano, C. J. F. Muller, et al. 2022. Impact of physical exercise and caloric restriction in patients with type 2 diabetes: Skeletal muscle insulin resistance and mitochondrial dysfunction as ideal therapeutic targets. Life Sciences 297:120467. doi: 10.1016/j.lfs.2022.120467.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mukhtar, H., Z. Y. Wang, S. K. Katiyar, and R. Agarwal. 1992. Tea components: Antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic effects. Preventive Medicine 21 (3):351–60. doi: 10.1016/0091-7435(92)90042-G.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Musial, C., A. Kuban-Jankowska, and M. Gorska-Ponikowska. 2020. Beneficial properties of green tea catechins. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 21 (5):1744. doi: 10.3390/ijms21051744.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muvhulawa, N., P. V. Dludla, K. Ziqubu, S. X. H. Mthembu, F. Mthiyane, B. B. Nkambule, and S. E. Mazibuko-Mbeje. 2022. Rutin ameliorates inflammation and improves metabolic function: A comprehensive analysis of scientific literature. Pharmacological Research 178 (106163):106163. doi: 10.1016/j.phrs.2022.106163.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nagle, D. G., D. Ferreira, and Y. D. Zhou. 2006. Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG): Chemical and biomedical perspectives. Phytochemistry 67 (17):1849–55. doi: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2006.06.020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakagawa, H., K. Hasumi, J.-T. Woo, K. Nagai, and M. Wachi. 2004. Generation of hydrogen peroxide primarily contributes to the induction of Fe(II)-dependent apoptosis in Jurkat cells by (−)-epigallocatechin gallate. Carcinogenesis 25 (9):1567–74. doi: 10.1093/carcin/bgh168.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakagawa, K., and T. Miyazawa. 1997a. Absorption and distribution of tea catechin, (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate, in the rat. Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology 43 (6):679–84. doi: 10.3177/jnsv.43.679.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakagawa, K., and T. Miyazawa. 1997b. Chemiluminescence-high-performance liquid chromatographic determination of tea catechin, (-)-epigallocatechin 3-gallate, at picomole levels in rat and human plasma. Analytical Biochemistry 248 (1):41–9. doi: 10.1006/abio.1997.2098.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nani, A., B. Murtaza, A. Sayed Khan, N. A. Khan, and A. Hichami. 2021. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential of polyphenols contained in mediterranean diet in obesity: Molecular mechanisms. Molecules 26 (4):985. doi: 10.3390/molecules26040985.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naumovski, N., B. L. Blades, and P. D. Roach. 2015. Food inhibits the oral bioavailability of the major green tea antioxidant epigallocatechin gallate in humans. Antioxidants 4 (2):373–93. doi: 10.3390/antiox4020373.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ndevahoma, F., B. B. Nkambule, P. V. Dludla, M. Mukesi, K. N. Natanael, and T. M. Nyambuya. 2021. The effect of underlying inflammation on iron metabolism, cardiovascular risk and renal function in patients with type 2 diabetes. eJHaem 2 (3):357–365.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Negri, A., V. Naponelli, F. Rizzi, and S. Bettuzzi. 2018. Molecular targets of epigallocatechin-gallate (EGCG): A special focus on signal transduction and cancer. Nutrients 10 (12):1936. doi: 10.3390/nu10121936.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ngcobo, S. R., B. B. Nkambule, T. M. Nyambuya, K. Mokgalaboni, A. Ntsethe, V. Mxinwa, K. Ziqubu, Y. Ntamo, T. Nyawo, and P. V. Dludla. 2022. Activated monocytes as a therapeutic target to attenuate vascular inflammation and lower cardiovascular disease-risk in patients with type 2 diabetes: A systematic review of preclinical and clinical studies. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 146 (2022):112579. doi: 10.1016/j.biopha.2021.112579.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nyawo, T. A., C. Pheiffer, S. E. Mazibuko-Mbeje, S. X. H. Mthembu, T. M. Nyambuya, B. B. Nkambule, H. Sadie-Van Gijsen, H. Strijdom, L. Tiano, and P. V. Dludla. 2021. Physical exercise potentially targets epicardial adipose tissue to reduce cardiovascular disease risk in patients with metabolic diseases: Oxidative stress and inflammation emerge as major therapeutic targets. Antioxidants (Basel) 10 (11):1758. doi: 10.3390/antiox10111758.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ohishi, T., S. Goto, P. Monira, M. Isemura, and Y. Nakamura. 2016. Anti-inflammatory action of green tea. Anti-Inflammatory & anti-Allergy Agents in Medicinal Chemistry 15 (2):74–90. doi: 10.2174/1871523015666160915154443.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Okushio, K., M. Suzuki, N. Matsumoto, F. Nanjo, and Y. Hara. 1999. Identification of (-)-epicatechin metabolites and their metabolic fate in the rat. Drug Metabolism and Disposition 27 (2):309–16.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oliviero, F., P. Sfriso, A. Scanu, U. Fiocco, P. Spinella, and L. Punzi. 2013. Epigallocatechin-3-gallate reduces inflammation induced by calcium pyrophosphate crystals in vitro. Frontiers in Pharmacology 4:51. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2013.00051.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pandey, K. B., and S. I. Rizvi. 2009. Plant polyphenols as dietary antioxidants in human health and disease. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity 2 (5):270–8. doi: 10.4161/oxim.2.5.9498.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pang, J., Z. Zhang, T. Z. Zheng, B. A. Bassig, C. Mao, X. Liu, Y. Zhu, K. Shi, J. Ge, Y. J. Yang, et al. 2016. Green tea consumption and risk of cardiovascular and ischemic related diseases: A meta-analysis. Int J Cardiol 202:967–74. doi: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2014.12.176.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perdices, L., L. Fuentes-Broto, F. Segura, A. Cavero, E. Orduna-Hospital, G. Insa-Sánchez, A. I. Sánchez-Cano, L. Fernández-Sánchez, N. Cuenca, and I. Pinilla. 2022. Systemic epigallocatechin gallate protects against retinal degeneration and hepatic oxidative stress in the P23H-1 rat. Neural Regeneration Research 17 (3):625–31. doi: 10.4103/1673-5374.320990.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pervin, M., K. Unno, A. Takagaki, M. Isemura, and Y. Nakamura. 2019. Function of green tea catechins in the brain: Epigallocatechin gallate and its metabolites. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 20 (15):3630. doi: 10.3390/ijms20153630.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters, C. M., R. J. Green, E. M. Janle, and M. G. Ferruzzi. 2010. Formulation with ascorbic acid and sucrose modulates catechin bioavailability from green tea. Food Research International 43 (1):95–102. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2009.08.016.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raederstorff, D. G., M. F. Schlachter, V. Elste, and P. Weber. 2003. Effect of EGCG on lipid absorption and plasma lipid levels in rats. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 14 (6):326–32. doi: 10.1016/S0955-2863(03)00054-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rasouli, H., M. H. Farzaei, and R. Khodarahmi. 2017. Polyphenols and their benefits: A review. International Journal of Food Properties Sup 2: 1700–1741. doi:10.1080/10942912.2017.1354017.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reddy, A. T., S. P. Lakshmi, E. Maruthi Prasad, N. C. Varadacharyulu, and L. D. Kodidhela. 2020. Epigallocatechin gallate suppresses inflammation in human coronary artery endothelial cells by inhibiting NF-κB. Life Sciences 258 (118136):118136. doi: 10.1016/j.lfs.2020.118136.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Scholl, C., A. Lepper, T. Lehr, N. Hanke, K. L. Schneider, J. Brockmöller, T. Seufferlein, and J. C. Stingl. 2018. Population nutrikinetics of green tea extract. Plos One 13 (2):e0193074. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0193074.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharma, A., and W. Zhou. 2011. A stability study of green tea catechins during the biscuit making process. Food Chemistry 126 (2):568–73. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.11.044.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh, B. N., S. Shankar, and R. K. Srivastava. 2011. Green tea catechin, epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG): Mechanisms, perspectives and clinical applications. Biochemical Pharmacology 82 (12):1807–21. doi: 10.1016/j.bcp.2011.07.093.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh, N. A., A. K. Mandal, and Z. A. Khan. 2015. Potential neuroprotective properties of epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG). Nutrition Journal 15 (1):60. doi: 10.1186/s12937-016-0179-4.
   Google Scholar
• Sinha, D., J. Biswas, S. M. Nabavi, and A. Bishayee. 2017. Tea phytochemicals for breast cancer prevention and intervention: From bench to bedside and beyond. Seminars in Cancer Biology 46:33–54. doi: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2017.04.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soldin, O. P., and D. R. Mattison. 2009. Sex differences in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Clinical pharmacokinetics 48 (3):143–57. doi: 10.2165/00003088-200948030-00001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steinmann, J., J. Buer, T. Pietschmann, and E. Steinmann. 2013. Anti-infective properties of epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), a component of green tea. British Journal of Pharmacology 168 (5):1059–73. doi: 10.1111/bph.12009.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephens, R. H., J. Tanianis-Hughes, N. B. Higgs, M. Humphrey, and G. Warhurst. 2002. Region-dependent modulation of intestinal permeability by drug efflux transporters: In vitro studies in mdr1a(-/-) mouse intestine. The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 303 (3):1095–101. doi: 10.1124/jpet.102.041236.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stolar, M. 2010. Glycemic control and complications in type 2 diabetes mellitus. The American Journal of Medicine 123 (3):S3–S11. doi: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2009.12.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stuart, E. C., M. J. Scandlyn, and R. J. Rosengren. 2006. Role of epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) in the treatment of breast and prostate cancer. Life Sciences 79 (25):2329–36. doi: 10.1016/j.lfs.2006.07.036.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suliburska, J., P. Bogdanski, M. Szulinska, M. Stepien, D. Pupek-Musialik, and A. Jablecka. 2012. Effects of green tea supplementation on elements, total antioxidants, lipids, and glucose values in the serum of obese patients. Biological Trace Element Research 149 (3):315–22. doi: 10.1007/s12011-012-9448-z.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun, Q., Y. Zheng, X. Zhang, X. Hu, Y. Wang, S. Zhang, D. Zhang, and H. Nie. 2013. Novel immunoregulatory properties of EGCG on reducing inflammation in EAE. Frontiers in Bioscience (Landmark Ed) 18 (1):332–42. doi: 10.2741/4104.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Suzuki, T., M. Pervin, S. Goto, M. Isemura, and Y. Nakamura. 2016. Beneficial effects of tea and the green tea catechin epigallocatechin-3-gallate on obesity. Molecules 21 (10):1305. doi: 10.3390/molecules21101305.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takagaki, A., and F. Nanjo. 2010. Metabolism of (-)-epigallocatechin gallate by rat intestinal flora. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 58 (2):1313–21. doi: 10.1021/jf903375s.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thielecke, F., G. Rahn, J. Böhnke, F. Adams, A. L. Birkenfeld, J. Jordan, and M. Boschmann. 2010. Epigallocatechin-3-gallate and postprandial fat oxidation in overweight/obese male volunteers: A pilot study. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 64 (7):704–13. doi: 10.1038/ejcn.2010.47.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tian, B., Z. Sun, Z. Xu, and Y. Hua. 2007. Chemiluminescence analysis of the prooxidant and antioxidant effects of epigallocatechin-3-gallate. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 16 (Suppl 1):153–7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tipoe, G. L., T. M. Leung, M. W. Hung, and M. L. Fung. 2007. Green tea polyphenols as an anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory agent for cardiovascular protection. Cardiovascular & Hematological Disorders-Drug Targets 7 (2):135–44. doi: 10.2174/187152907780830905.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tosco, A., F. De Gregorio, S. Esposito, D. De Stefano, I. Sana, E. Ferrari, A. Sepe, L. Salvadori, P. Buonpensiero, A. Di Pasqua, et al. 2016. A novel treatment of cystic fibrosis acting on-target: Cysteamine plus epigallocatechin gallate for the autophagy-dependent rescue of class II-mutated CFTR. Cell Death & Differentiation 23 (8):1380–93. doi: 10.1038/cdd.2016.22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tosco, A., F. De Gregorio, S. Esposito, D. De Stefano, I. Sana, E. Ferrari, A. Sepe, L. Salvadori, P. Buonpensiero, A. Di Pasqua, et al. 2017. A novel treatment of cystic fibrosis acting on-target: Cysteamine plus epigallocatechin gallate for the autophagy-dependent rescue of class II-mutated CFTR. Cell Death and Differentiation 24 (7):1305. doi: 10.1038/cdd.2016.43.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsuneki, H., M. Ishizuka, M. Terasawa, J. B. Wu, T. Sasaoka, and I. Kimura. 2004. Effect of green tea on blood glucose levels and serum proteomic patterns in diabetic (db/db) mice and on glucose metabolism in healthy humans. BMC Pharmacology 4 (1):18. doi: 10.1186/1471-2210-4-18.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ullmann, U., J. Haller, J. D. Decourt, J. Girault, V. Spitzer, and P. Weber. 2004. Plasma-kinetic characteristics of purified and isolated green tea catechin epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) after 10 days repeated dosing in healthy volunteers. International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research 74 (4):269–78. doi: 10.1024/0300-9831.74.4.269.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• vanˈt Slot, G., and H.-U. Humpf. 2009. Degradation and metabolism of catechin, epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), and related compounds by the intestinal microbiota in the pig cecum model. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 57 (17):8041–8. doi: 10.1021/jf900458e.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, C. T., H. H. Chang, C. H. Hsiao, M. J. Lee, H. C. Ku, Y. J. Hu, and Y. H. Kao. 2009. The effects of green tea (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate on reactive oxygen species in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes and adipocytes depend on the glutathione and 67 kDa laminin receptor pathways. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research 53 (3):349–60. doi: 10.1002/mnfr.200800013.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, H., G. J. Provan, and K. Helliwell. 2000. Tea flavonoids: Their functions, utilisation and analysis. Trends in Food Science and Technology 11 (4–5):152–60. doi: 10.1016/S0924-2244(00)00061-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, J., R. Jia, P. Celi, X. Ding, S. Bai, Q. Zeng, X. Mao, S. Xu, and K. Zhang. 2020. Green tea polyphenol epigallocatechin-3-gallate improves the antioxidant capacity of eggs. Food & Function 11 (1):534–43. doi: 10.1039/C9FO02157D.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, R., and W. Zhou. 2004. Stability of tea catechins in the breadmaking process. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 52 (26):8224–9. doi: 10.1021/jf048655x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, X. H., and Y. P. You. 2017. Epigallocatechin gallate extends therapeutic window of recombinant tissue plasminogen activator treatment for brain ischemic stroke: A randomized double-blind and placebo-controlled trial. Clinical Neuropharmacology 40 (1):24–8. doi: 10.1097/wnf.0000000000000197.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warden, B. A., L. S. Smith, G. R. Beecher, D. A. Balentine, and B. A. Clevidence. 2001. Catechins are bioavailable in men and women drinking black tea throughout the day. The Journal of Nutrition 131 (6):1731–7. doi: 10.1093/jn/131.6.1731.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Westerterp-Plantenga, M. S., M. P. Lejeune, and E. M. Kovacs. 2005. Body weight loss and weight maintenance in relation to habitual caffeine intake and green tea supplementation. Obesity Research 13 (7):1195–204. doi: 10.1038/oby.2005.142.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Widlansky, M. E., N. M. Hamburg, E. Anter, M. Holbrook, D. F. Kahn, J. G. Elliott, J. F. Keaney, Jr., and J. A. Vita. 2007. Acute EGCG supplementation reverses endothelial dysfunction in patients with coronary artery disease. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 26 (2):95–102. doi: 10.1080/07315724.2007.10719590.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolfram, S., D. Raederstorff, M. Preller, Y. Wang, S. R. Teixeira, C. Riegger, and P. Weber. 2006. Epigallocatechin gallate supplementation alleviates diabetes in rodents. The Journal of Nutrition 136 (10):2512–8. doi: 10.1093/jn/136.10.2512.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization (WHO). 2022. The top ten leading causes of death. Accessed July 15, 2022. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/the-top-10-causes-of-death.
   Google Scholar
• Wu, L. Y., C. C. Juan, L. S. Hwang, Y. P. Hsu, P. H. Ho, and L. T. Ho. 2004. Green tea supplementation ameliorates insulin resistance and increases glucose transporter IV content in a fructose-fed rat model. European Journal of Nutrition 43 (2):116–24. doi: 10.1007/s00394-004-0450-x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu, X., F. Shao, Y. Yang, L. Gu, W. Zheng, X. Wu, Y. Gu, Y. Shu, Y. Sun, and Q. Xu. 2014. Epigallocatechin-3-gallate sensitizes IFN-γ-stimulated CD4+ T cells to apoptosis via alternative activation of STAT1. International Immunopharmacology 23 (2):434–41. doi: 10.1016/j.intimp.2014.09.014.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu, Y. R., H. J. Choi, Y. G. Kang, J. K. Kim, and J. W. Shin. 2017. In vitro study on anti-inflammatory effects of epigallocatechin-3-gallate-loaded nano- and microscale particles. International Journal of Nanomedicine 12:7007–13. doi: 10.2147/ijn.S146296.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xicota, L., J. Rodriguez-Morato, M. Dierssen, and R. de la Torre. 2017. Potential role of (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) in the secondary prevention of Alzheimer disease. Current Drug Targets 18 (2):174–95. doi: 10.2174/1389450116666150825113655.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xicota, L., J. Rodríguez, K. Langohr, M. Fitó, M. Dierssen, and R. de la Torre. 2020. Effect of epigallocatechin gallate on the body composition and lipid profile of down syndrome individuals: Implications for clinical management. Clinical Nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland) 39 (4):1292–300. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2019.05.028.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, G. Y., J. Liao, K. Kim, E. J. Yurkow, and C. S. Yang. 1998. Inhibition of growth and induction of apoptosis in human cancer cell lines by tea polyphenols. Carcinogenesis 19 (4):611–6. doi: 10.1093/carcin/19.4.611.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, C. S., L. Chen, M. J. Lee, D. Balentine, M. C. Kuo, and S. P. Schantz. 1998. Blood and urine levels of tea catechins after ingestion of different amounts of green tea by human volunteers. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 7 (4):351–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, C. S., S. Prabhu, and J. Landau. 2001. Prevention of carcinogenesis by tea polyphenols. Drug Metabolism Reviews 33 (3–4):237–53. doi: 10.1081/dmr-120000651.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, H., R. Finaly, and D. H. Teitelbaum. 2003. Alteration in epithelial permeability and ion transport in a mouse model of total parenteral nutrition. Critical Care Medicine 31 (4):1118–25. doi: 10.1097/01.ccm.0000053523.73064.8a.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, Y., Y. J. Qin, Y. W. Yip, K. P. Chan, K. O. Chu, W. K. Chu, T. K. Ng, C. P. Pang, and S. O. Chan. 2016. Green tea catechins are potent anti-oxidants that ameliorate sodium iodate-induced retinal degeneration in rats. Scientific Reports 6:29546. doi: 10.1038/srep29546.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yin, J., F. Huang, Y. Yi, L. Yin, and D. Peng. 2016. EGCG attenuates atherosclerosis through the Jagged-1/Notch pathway. International Journal of Molecular Medicine 37 (2):398–406. doi: 10.3892/ijmm.2015.2422.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Younes, M., P. Aggett, F. Aguilar, R. Crebelli, B. Dusemund, M. Filipič, M. J. Frutos, P. Galtier, D. Gott, U. Gundert-Remy, et al. 2018. Scientific opinion on the safety of green tea catechins. EFSA Journal European Food Safety Authority 16 (4):e05239. doi: 10.2903/j.efsa.2018.5239.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeng, X., and X. Tan. 2015. Epigallocatechin-3-gallate and zinc provide anti-apoptotic protection against hypoxia/reoxygenation injury in H9c2 rat cardiac myoblast cells. Molecular Medicine Reports 12 (2):1850–6. doi: 10.3892/mmr.2015.3603.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, H., S. Su, X. Yu, and Y. Li. 2017. Dietary epigallocatechin 3-gallate supplement improves maternal and neonatal treatment outcome of gestational diabetes mellitus: A double-blind randomised controlled trial. Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics : The Official Journal of the British Dietetic Association 30 (6):753–8. doi: 10.1111/jhn.12470.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, L., Z. K. Zhang, and S. Liang. 2016. Epigallocatechin-3-gallate protects retinal vascular endothelial cells from high glucose stress in vitro via the MAPK/ERK-VEGF pathway. Genetics and Molecular Research 15 (2):1–11. doi: 10.4238/gmr.15027874.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, L., Y. Zheng, M. S. Chow, and Z. Zuo. 2004. Investigation of intestinal absorption and disposition of green tea catechins by Caco-2 monolayer model. International Journal of Pharmaceutics 287 (1–2):1–12. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2004.08.020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zheng, E. X., S. Rossi, R. J. Fontana, R. Vuppalanchi, J. H. Hoofnagle, I. Khan, and V. J. Navarro. 2016. Risk of liver injury associated with green tea extract in SLIMQUICK(®) weight loss products: Results from the DILIN prospective study. Drug Safety 39 (8):749–54. doi: 10.1007/s40264-016-0428-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zheng, Y., M. Toborek, and B. Hennig. 2010. Epigallocatechin gallate-mediated protection against tumor necrosis factor-α-induced monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 expression is heme oxygenase-1 dependent. Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental 59 (10):1528–35. doi: 10.1016/j.metabol.2010.01.018.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zwolak, I. 2021. Epigallocatechin gallate for management of heavy metal-induced oxidative stress: Mechanisms of action, efficacy, and concerns. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 22 (8):4027. doi: 10.3390/ijms22084027.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar