148
Views
134
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Antioxidants and hormone‐mediated health benefits of whole grains

Pages 473-497 | Published online: 29 Sep 2009

References

  • U.S. Department of Health and Human Services . 1988 . The Surgeon General's Report on Nutrition and Health , Washington, D.C. : U.S. Government Printing Office .
  • National Academy of Sciences . 1989 . Diet and Health: Implications for Reducing Chronic Disease Risk , Washington, D.C. : National Academy Press .
  • British Nutrition Foundation . 1990 . Complex Carbohydrates in Foods , London : Chapman and Hall .
  • 1991 . Food and Drug Administration . Fed. Reg. , 56 (229) : 60566
  • West , J. B. 1985 . Physiological Basis of Medical Practice , Baltimore, MD : Williams and Wilkins .
  • Baird , D. T. , Horton , R. , Longcope , C. and Tait , J. F. 1969 . Steroid dynamics under steady state conditions . Recent Prog. Horm. Res. , 25 : 611
  • Judd , H. L. , Shamonki , I. M. , Frumar , A. M. and Lagasse , L. D. 1982 . Origin of serum estradiol in post‐menopausal women . Obstet. Gynecol. , 59 : 680
  • Selby , C. 1990 . Sex hormone binding globulin: origin, function and clinical significance . Ann. Clin. Biochem. , 27 : 532
  • Robbins , J. and Rail , J. E. 1957 . The interactions of thyroid hormones and proteins in biological fluids . Recent Prog. Horm. Res. , 13 : 161
  • Tait , J. P. and Burstein , S. 1964 . “ studies of steroid dynamics in men ” . In The Hormones , Edited by: Pincus , G. , Thimann , K. V. and Astwood , E. Vol. 5 , 441 New York : Academic Press . In vivo
  • Pardridge , W. M. 1981 . Transport of hormones into tissues . in vivo, Endocrinol. Rev. , 2 : 103
  • Ekins , R. P. , Edwards , P. and Newman , B. 1982 . “ The role of binding proteins in hormone delivery ” . In Free Hormones in Blood , Edited by: Albertini , A. and Ekins , R. P. 3 Elsevier, Amsterdam, Biomed. Press .
  • Keller , N. , Richardson , U. I. and Yates , F. E. 1969 . Protein binding and the biological activity of corticos‐teroids: in vivo induction of hepatic and pancreatic alanine aminotransferases by corticosteroids in normal and estrogen treated rats . Endocrinology , 84 : 49
  • Mendel , C. M. 1989 . The free hormone hypothesis: a physiologically based mathematical model . Endocrin. Rev. , 10 : 232
  • Hryb , D. J. , Khan , M. S. and Rosner , W. 1985 . Test‐osterone‐estradiol binding globulin binds to human prostatic cell membranes . Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. , 128 : 432
  • Strel'chynok , O. A. , Awakuov , G. V. and Survillo , L. I. 1983 . A recognition system for sex hormone binding globulin‐oestradiol complex in human decidual en‐dometrium plasma membranes . Biochem. Biophys. Acta , 802 : 459
  • Tardivel‐Lacombe , J. , Egloff , M. , Mazabrand , A. and Degrelle , H. 1984 . Immunohistochemical detection of sex steroid binding plasma protein in human mammary carcinoma cells . Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. , 118 : 488
  • Siiteri , P. K. , Murai , J. T. , Hammond , G. L. , Nisker , J. A. , Raymore , W. J. and Kuhn , R. W. 1982 . The serum transport of steroid hormones . Recent Prog. Horm. Res. , 38 : 457
  • Miller , W. R. and O'Neil , J. S. 1989 . The relevance of local estrogen metabolism within the breast . Proc. R. Soc. Edinburgh , 95B : 203
  • Swaneck , G. E. and Fishman , J. 1991 . “ Estrogen action on target cells: Evidence for different effects by products by two alternative pathways of estradiol metabolism ” . In The New Biology of Steroid Hormones , Edited by: Hochberg , R. B. and Naftolin , F. 45 New York : Raven Press .
  • Fishman , J. and Martucci , C . 1978 . Differential biological activity of estradiol metabolites . Pediatrics , 62 : 1128
  • Anderson , J. N. , Peck , E. J. Jr. and Clark , J. H. 1975 . Estrogen‐induced uterine response and growth: Relationship to receptor estrogen binding by uterine nuclei . Endocrinology , 96 : 160
  • Clark , J. H. , Paszko , Z. and Peck , E. J. Jr. 1977 . Nuclear binding and retention of the receptor estrogen complex: relation to the agonistic and antagonistic properties of estriol . Endocrinology. , 100 : 91
  • Dunn , J. F. , Merriam , G. R. , Eil , C. , Kono , S. , Loriaux , D. L. and Nisula , B. C. 1980 . Testosterone‐estradiol globulin binds to 2‐methoxyestradiol with greater affinity than testosterone . J. Clin. Endocr. Metab. , 51 : 404
  • MacLusky , N. J. , Barnea , E. R. , Clark , C. R. and Naftolin , F. 1983 . “ Catechol estrogens and estrogen receptors ” . In Catechol Estrogens , Edited by: Merriam , G. R. and Lipsett , M. B. 151 New York : Raven Press .
  • Gorbach , S. L. and Goldin , B. R. 1987 . Diet and the excretion and enterohepatic cycling of estrogens . Prev. Med. , 16 : 525
  • Tseng , L. , Stolee , A. and Gurpide , E. 1972 . Quantitative studies on the uptake and metabolism of estrogens and progesterone by human endometrium . Endocrinology , 90 : 390
  • Adlercreutz , H. , Hockerstedt , K. , Bannwart , C , Bloigu , S. , Hamalainen , E. , Fotsis , T. and Ollus , A. 1987 . Effect of dietary components, including lignans and phytoestrogens on enterohepatic circulation and liver metabolism of estrogens and on sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) . J. Steroid Biochem. , 27 : 1135
  • Lombardi , P. , Goldin , B. , Boutin , E. and Gorbach , S. L. 1967 . Metabolism of androgens and estrogens by human fecal microorganisms . J. Steroid Biochem. , 9 : 795
  • Jarvenpaa , P. , Kosunen , T. , Fotsis , T. and Adlercreutz , H. 1980 . In vitro metabolism of estrogens by isolated intestinal microorganisms and by human faecal microflora . J. Steroid Biochem. , 13 : 345
  • Adlercreutz , H. 1990 . Western diet and Western diseases: some hormonal and biochemical mechanisms and associations . Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest. , 50 ( Suppl. ) : 201 3
  • Aldercreutz , H. 1990 . Diet, breast cancer and sex hormone metabolism . Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. , 595 : 281
  • Aldercreutz , H. 1991 . “ Diet and sex hormone metabolism ” . In Nutrition, Toxicity and Cancer , Edited by: Rowland , I. R. 137 Boca Raton : CRC Press .
  • Adlercreutz , H. , Mousavi , Y. and Hocherstedt , K. 1992 . Diet and breast cancer . Acta Oncol. , 31 : 175
  • Rose , D. P. 1990 . Dietary fiber and breast cancer . Nutr. Cancer , 13 : 1
  • Rose , D. P. 1992 . Dietary fiber, phytoestrogens and breast cancer . Nutrition , 8 : 47
  • Kelsay , J. L. and Berkowitz , G. S. 1988 . Breast cancer epidemiology . Cancer Res. , 48 : 5615
  • Rose , D. P. , Goldman , M. , Connoly , J. M. and Strong , L. E. 1991 . High‐fiber diet reduces serum estrogen concentrations in premenopausal women . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 54 : 520
  • MacMahon , B. , Cole , P. and Brown , J. 1973 . Etiology of human breast cancer: a review . J. Natl. Cancer Inst. , 50 : 21
  • Moore , J. W. , Clark , G. M. G. , Bulbrook , R. D. , Hayward , J. L. , Murai , J. T. , Hammond , G. L. and Siiteri , P. K. 1982 . Serum concentrations of total and non‐protein bound oestradiol in patients with breast cancer and in normal controls . Int. J. Cancer , 20 : 17
  • Jones , L. A. , Ota , D. M. , Jackson , G. A. , Jackson , P. M. , Kemp , K. , Anderson , D. E. , McCamont , S. K. and Bauman , D. H. 1987 . Bioavailability of estradiol as a marker of breast cancer risk assessment. . Cancer Res. , 47 : 5224
  • Takatani , O. , Kosano , H. , Okumoto , T. , Akamatsu , K. , Tamaknma , S. and Hiraide , H. 1987 . Distribution of estradiol and percentage of free testosterone in sera of Japanese women: preoperative breast cancer patients and normal controls . J. Natl. Cancer Inst. , 79 : 1199
  • Adami , H.‐O. , Johansson , E. D. B. , Vegelius , J. and Victor , A. 1979 . Serum concentrations of estrone, androstenedione, testosterone, and sex hormone binding globulin in postmenopausal women with breast cancer and in age‐matched controls . Upsala J. Med. Sci. , 84 : 259
  • Reed , M. J. , Cheng , R. W. , Noel , C. T. , Dudley , M. A. F. and James , V. H. T. 1983 . Plasma levels of estrone, estrone sulfate, and estradiol and the percentage of bound estradiol in postmenopausal women with and without breast disease . Cancer Res. , 43 : 3940
  • Langley , M. S. , Hammond , G. L. , Bardsley , A. , Selfwood , R. A. and Anderson , D. C. 1985 . Serum steroid binding proteins and the bioavailability of estradiol in relation to breast diseases . J. Natl. Cancer Inst. , 75 : 823
  • Ota , D. M. , Jones , L. A. , Jackson , G. L. , Jackson , P. M. , Kemp , K. and Bauman , D. 1986 . Obesity, non‐protein bound estradiol levels, and distribution of estradiol in the sera of breast cancer patients . Cancer , 57 : 558
  • Shimizu , H. , Ross , R. K. , Bernstein , L. , Pike , M. C. and Anderson , B. E. 1990 . Serum oestrogen levels in postmenopausal women: comparison of American whites and Japanese in Japan . Br. J. Cancer , 62 : 451
  • Key , T. J. A. , Chen , J. , Wang , D. Y. , Pike , M. C. and Boreham , J. 1990 . Sex hormones in women in rural China and in Britain . Br. J. Cancer , 62 : 631
  • Armstrong , B. K. , Bron , J. B. , Clarke , H. T. , Crooke , D. K. , Hahanel , R. , Masarel , J. R. and Ratajezak , T. 1981 . Diet and reproductive hormones: a study of vegetarian and non‐vegetarian postmenopausal women . J. Natl. Cancer Inst. , 67 : 761
  • Goldin , B. R. , Adlercreutz , H. , Dwyer , J. T. , Swenson , L. , Warram , J. H. and Gorbach , S. 1987 . Effect of diet on excretion of oestrogens in pre‐ and post‐menopausal women . Cancer Res. , 41 : 3771
  • Adlercreutz , H. , Hamalainen , E. , Gorbach , S. L. , Goldin , B. R. , Woods , M. N. and Dwyer , J. T. 1989 . Diet and plasma androgens in postmenopausal vegetarian and omnivorous women and postmenopausal women with breast cancer . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 49 : 433
  • Adlercreutz , H. , Fotsis , T. , Bannwart , C , Hamalainen , E. , Bloigu , A. and Ollus . 1986 . Urinary estrogen profile determination in young Finnish vegetarian and omnivorous women . J. Steroid Biochem. , 24 : 289
  • Adlercreutz , H. , Fotsis , T. , Bannwart , C , Wahala , K. , Makeal , T. , Brunow , G. and Hase , T. 1986 . Determination of urinary lignans and phytoestrogens metabolites, potential antiestrogens and anticarcinogen in urine of women on various habitual diets . J. Steroid Biochem. , 25 : 791
  • Goldin , B. R. , Adlercreutz , H. , Gorbach , S. L. , Warrant , J. H. , Dwyer , J. T. , Swenson , L. and Woods , M. N. 1982 . Estrogen excretion patterns and plasma levels in vegetarian and omnivorous women . N. Engl. J. Med. , 307 : 1542
  • Goldin , B. R. , Adlercreutz , H. , Gorbach , S. L. , Woods , M. N. , Dwyer , J. T. , Conlon , T. , Bohn , E. and Gershoff , S. N. 1986 . The relationship between estrogen levels and diets of Caucasian American and Oriental immigrant women . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 44 : 945
  • Gorbach , S. L. 1984 . Estrogens, breast cancer and intestinal flora . Rev. Infect. Dis. , 6 (Suppl. 1) : S85
  • Adlercreutz , H. , Hockerstedt , K. , Bannwart , C. , Hamalainen , E. , Fotsis , T. and Bloigu , S. 1988 . “ Association between dietary fiber, urinary excretion of lignans and isoflavonic phytoestrogens and plasma non‐protein bound sex hormone in relation to breast cancer ” . In Progress in Cancer Research and Therapy: Hormones and Cancer 3 , Edited by: Bresciani , F. , King , R. J. B. , Lippman , M. E. and Raynaud , J. P. 35 409 New York : Raven Press .
  • Adlercreutz , H. and Martin , F. 1980 . Biliary excretion and intestinal metabolism of progesterone and estrogens in man . J. Steroid Biochem. , 13 : 231
  • Whitten , C. G. and Shultz , T. D. 1988 . Binding of steroid hormones in vitro by water‐insoluble dietary fiber . Nutr. Res. , 8 : 1223
  • Adlercreutz , H. 1988 . Lignans and phytoestrogens: possible preventive role in cancer . Front. Gastrointest. Res. , 14 : 165
  • Setchell , K. D. R. and Adlercreutz , H. 1988 . “ Mammalian lignans and phytoestrogens: recent studies on their formation, metabolism and biological role in health and disease ” . In Role of the Gut Flora in Toxicity and Cancer , Edited by: Rowland , I. R. 315 London : Academic .
  • Rao , C. B. S. 1978 . The Chemistry of Lignans , Waltair, , India : Andra University Press .
  • Setchell , K. D. R. , Lawson , A. M. , Mitchell , F. L. , Adlercreutz , H. , Kirk , D. N. and Axelson , M. 1980 . Lignans in man and animal species . Nature , 287 : 740
  • Axelson , M. and Setchell , K. D. R. 1980 . Conjugation of lignans in human urine . FEBS Lett. , 122 : 49
  • Setchell , K. D. R. , Lawson , A. M. , Conway , E. , Taylor , N. F. , Kirk , D. N. , Cooley , G. , Farrant , R. D. , Wynn , S. and Axelson , M. 1981 . The definitive identification of the lignans trans‐2,3‐bis (3 hydroxy‐benzyl)‐gamma‐butyrolactone and 2,3‐bis(3‐hydroxy‐benzyl)butane‐l,4 diol in human and animal urine . Biochem. J. , 197 : 447
  • Stich , S. R. , Toriba , J. R. , Croen , M. B. , Funke , C. L. O. , Lemmhius , J. , Vink , J. and Woods , G. F. 1980 . Excretion, isolation and structure of a new phenolic constituent of female urine . Nature , 238 : 738
  • Axelson , M. , Sjovall , J. , Gustafsson , B. E. and Setchell , K. D. R. 1982 . Origin of lignans in mammals and identification of a precursor from plants . Nature , 298 : 659
  • Borrielo , S. P. , Setchell , K. D. R. , Axelson , M. and Lawson , A. M. 1985 . Production and metabolism of lignans by the human fecal flora, /. . Appl. Bacteriol , 58 : 37
  • Axelson , M. and Setchell , K. D. R. 1981 . The excretion of lignans in rats — evidence for an intestinal bacterial source for this group of compounds . FEBS Lett. , 123 : 337
  • Setchell , K. D. R. , Lawson , A. M. , Borriello , S. P. , Adlercreutz , H. and Axelson , M. 1982 . “ Formation of lignans by intestinal microflora ” . In Colonic Carcino‐genesis. , Edited by: Malt , R. A. and Williamson , R. C. N. 93 Lancaster, , UK : MTP .
  • Thompson , L. U. , Robb , P. , Serraino , M. and Cheung , F. 1991 . Mammalian lignan production from various foods . Nutr. Cancer , 16 : 43
  • Price , K. R. and Fenwick , G. R. 1985 . Naturally occurring oestrogens in foods — a review . Food Addit. Contam. , 2 : 73
  • Verdeal , K. and Ryan , D. S. 1979 . Naturally occurring estrogens in plant foodstuffs — a review . J. Food Protect. , 42 : 577
  • Lerner , L. J. and Jordan , C. V. 1990 . Development of antiestrogens and their use in breast cancer . Cancer Res. , 50 : 4177
  • Adlercreutz , H. , Mousavi , Y. , Loukovaara , M. and Hamalainen , E. 1991 . “ Lignans, isoflavones, sex hormone metabolism and breast cancer ” . In The New Biology of Steroid Hormones , Edited by: Hochberg , R. B. and Naftolin , F. 145 New York : Raven Press .
  • Adlercreutz , H. 1984 . Does fiber‐rich food containing animal lignan precursors protect against colon and breast cancer? An extension of the “fiber hypothesis”; . Gastroenterology , 86 : 761
  • Adlercreutz , H. , Honjo , H. , Higashi , A. , Fotsis , T. , Hamalainen , E. , Hasegawa , T. and Okada , H. 1991 . Urinary excretion of lignans and isoflavonoid phytoestrogens in Japanese men and women consuming a traditional Japanese diet . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 54 : 1093
  • Rose , D. P. , Boyar , A. P. and Wynder , E. L. 1986 . International comparisons of mortality rates for cancer of the breast, ovary, prostate, and colon, and per capita food consumption . Cancer , 58 : 2363
  • Adlercreutz , H. , Musey , P. I. , Fotsis , T. , Bannwart , C. , Wahala , K. , Makela , T. , Brunow , G. and Hase , T. 1986 . Identification of lignans and phytoestrogens in urine of chimpanzees . Clin. Chim. Acta , 158 : 147
  • Lee , H. P. , Gourley , L. , Duffy , S. W. , Esteve , J. , Lee , J. and Day , N. E. 1991 . Dietary effects on breast‐cancer risk in Singapore . Lancet , 337 : 1197
  • Fishman , J. , Schneider , J. , Hershcopf , R. J. and Bradlow , H. L. 1984 . Increased estrogen‐ 16‐alpha‐hydroxy‐lase activity in women with breast and endometrial cancer . J. Steroid Biochem. , 20 : 1077
  • Bradlow , H. L. , Hershcopf , R. J. , Martucci , C. P. and Fishman , J. 1985 . Estradiol‐16‐alpha‐hydroxylase in the mouse correlates with mammary tumor incidence and presence of murine mammary tumor virus: a possible model for the hormonal etiology of breast cancer in humans . Proc. Natl. Acad Sci. U.S.A. , 82 : 6295
  • Bradlow , H. L. , Hershcopf , R. E. and Fishman , J. F. 1986 . Oestradiol 16 alpha‐hydroxylase: a risk marker for breast cancer. . Cancer Surv. , 5 : 573
  • Adlercreutz , H. , Mousavi , Y. , Clark , J. , Hocker‐stedt , K. , Hamalainen , E. , Wahala , K. , Makela , T. and Hase , T. 1992 . Dietary phytoestrogens and cancer: in vitro and in vivo studies . J. Steroid Biochem. Molec. Biol. , 41 : 331
  • Mousavi , Y. and Adlercreutz , H. 1992 . Enterolactone and estradiol inhibit each others proliferative effect on MCF‐7 breast cancer cells in culture . J. Steroid Biochem. Molec. Biol. , in press
  • Hirano , T. , Oka , K. and Akiba , M. 1989 . Antiproliferative effects of synthetic and naturally occurring flavonoids on tumor cells of the human breast carcinoma cell line, ZR‐75–1 . Res. Commun. Chem. Pathol. Pharmacol. , 64 : 69
  • Hirano , T. , Fukuoka , K. and Oka , K. 1990 . Anti‐proliferative activity of mammalian lignan derivatives against the human breast carcinoma cell line, ZR‐75–1 . Cancer Invest. , 8 : 595
  • Markaverich , B. M. , Roberts , R. R. , Alejandro , M. A. , Johnson , G. A. , Middleditch , B. S. and Clark , J. H. 1988 . Bioflavonoid interaction with rat uterine type II binding sites and cell growth inhibition . J. Steroid Biochem. , 30 : 71
  • Schweigerer , L. , Christeleit , K. , Fleischmann , G. , Adlercreutz , H. , Wahala , K. , Hase , T. , Schwab , M. , Ludwig , R. and Fotsis , T. 1992 . Identification in human urine of a natural growth inhibitor for cells derived from solid paediatric tumours . Eur. J. Clin. Invest. , 22 : 260
  • Hatwell , J. L. 1976 . Types of anticancer agents isolated from plants . Cancer Treat. Rep. , 60 : 1031
  • Waters , A. P. and Knowler , J. T. 1982 . Effect of a lignan (HPMF) on RNA synthesis in the rat uterus . J. Reprod. Fert. , 66 : 379
  • Nakadate , Y. , Yamamoto , S. , Ishii , M. and Kato , R. 1982 . Inhibition of 12–0‐tetradecanoylphorbol‐13‐ac‐etate‐induced epidermal ornithine decarboxylase activity by phospholipase A2 inhibitors and lipoxidase inhibitor . Cancer Res. , 42 : 2841
  • Akiyama , T. , Ishida , J. , Nakagawa , S. , Ogawara , H. , Watanabe , S. , Itoh , N. , Shibuya , M. and Fukami , Y. 1987 . Genistein, a specific inhibitor of tyrosine protein kinases . J. Biol. Chem. , 262 : 5592
  • Ogawara , H. , Akiyama , T. , Watanabe , S. , Ito , N. , Kobori , M. and Seodoa , Y. 1989 . Inhibition of tyrosine protein kinase activity by synthetic isoflavones and flavones . J. Antibiot. , 42 : 340
  • Okura , A , Arakawa , H. , Oka , H. , Yoshinari , T. and Monden , Y. 1988 . Effect of genistein on topoisomerase activity and on the growth of (Val 12) Ha‐ras transformed NIH 3T3 cells . Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. , 157 : 183
  • Yamashita , Y. , Kawada , S. and Nakano , H. 1990 . Induction of mammalian topoisomerase II dependent DNA cleavage by noninteractive flavonoids genistein and orobol . Biochem. Pharm. , 39 : 737
  • Linassier , C. , Pierre , M. , Le Peco , J. and Pierre , J. 1990 . Mechanism of action of NIH‐3T3 cells of genistein, an inhibitor of EGF receptor tyrosine kinase activity . Biochem. Pharm. , 39 : 187
  • Sariaslani , F. S. and Kunz , D. A. 1986 . Induction of cy‐tochrome P‐450 in Streptomyces griseus by soybean flour . Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. , 141 : 405
  • Nakadate , T. 1989 . The mechanism of skin tumor promotion caused by phorbol esters: possible involvement of arachidonic acid/cascade/lipoxygenase, protein kinase C and calcium/calmodulin systems . Jpn. J. Pharmacol , 49 : 1
  • Garreau , B. , Vallette , G. , Adlercreutz , H. , Wahala , K. , Makela , T. , Benassayag , C. and Nunez , E. A. 1991 . Phytoestrogens: new ligands for rat and human alpha‐fetoprotein . Biochem. Biophys. Acta , 1094 : 339
  • Hirano , T. , Fukuoka , K. , Oka , K. and Matsumoto , Y. 1991 . Differential sensitivity of human gastric cancer ATPase and normal gastric mucosa ATPase to the synthetic mammalian lignan analogue 2,3‐dibenzyl‐butane‐ll,4‐diol (Hattalin) . Cancer Invest. , 9 : 145
  • Coyne , D. W. and Morrison , A. R. 1990 . Effect of the tyrosine kinase inhibitor, genistein, on interleukin‐1 stimulated PGE2 production in mesangial cells . Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. , 173 : 718
  • Agarwal , R. , Wang , Z. , Bik , D. P. and Mukhtar , H. 1991 . Nordihydroguairetic acid, an inhibitor of lipoxygenase, also inhibits cytochrome P‐450‐mediated monooxygenase activity in rat epidermal and hepatic microsomes . Drug Met. Disp. , 19 : 620
  • Yamashita , K. E. , Nohara , Y. , Katayama , K. and Namiki , M. 1992 . Sesame seed lignans and gamma‐toco‐pherol act synergistically to produce vitamin E activity in rats . J. Nutr. , 122 : 2440
  • Budowski , P. and Markley , K. S. 1951 . The chemical and physiological properties of sesame oil . Chem. Res. , 48 : 125
  • Hearon , W. M. and Macgregor , W. S. 1955 . The naturally occurring lignans . Chem. Res. , 55 : 957
  • Fukuda , Y. , Osawa , T. and Namiki , M. 1985 . Studies on antioxidative substances in sesame seed . Agric. Biol. Chem. , 49 : 301
  • Osawa , T. , Nagata , M. , Namiki , M. and Fukuda , Y. 1985 . Sesamolinol, a novel antioxidant isolated from sesame seeds . Agric. Biol. Chem. , 49 : 3351
  • Fukuda , Y. , Nagata , M. , Osawa , T. and Namiki , M. 1986 . Contribution of Iignan analogues to antioxidative activity of refined unroasted sesame seed oil . J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. , 63 : 1027
  • Sanghvi , A. , Diven , W. F. , Seltman , H. , Warty , V. , Rizk , M. , Kritchevsky , D. and Setchell , K. 1984 . “ Inhibition of rat liver cholesterol 7‐alpha hydroxylase and acyl‐CoA: cholesterol acyl transferase activities by enterodiol and enterolactone ” . In Drugs Affecting Lipid Metabolism , Edited by: Kritchevsky , D. , Paoletti , R. and Holmes , W. L. 311 New York : Plenum Press .
  • Hirose , N. , Inoue , T. , Nishihara , K. , Sugano , M. , Akimoto , K. , Shimizu , S. and Yamada , H. 1991 . Inhibition of cholesterol absorption and synthesis in rats by sesamin . J. Lipid Res. , 32 : 629
  • Serraino , M. and Thompson , L. U. 1991 . The effect of flaxseed supplementation on early risk markers for mammary carcinogenesis . Cancer Lett. , 60 : 135
  • Sharkey , M. and Bruce , R. 1986 . Quantitation of nuclear aberrations as a screen for agents damaging to mammary epithelium . Carcinogenesis , 7 : 1991
  • Serraino , M. and Thompson , L. U. 1992 . The effect of flaxseed supplementation on the initiation and promotional stages of mammary tumorigenesis . Nutr. Cancer. , 17 : 153
  • Serraino , M. and Thompson , L. U. 1992 . Flaxseed supplementation and early markers of colon carcinogenesis . Cancer Lett. , 63 : 159
  • Bird , R. P. , McClellan , E. A. and Bruce , W. R. 1989 . Aberrant crypts, putative precancerous lesions, in the study of the role of diet in the aetiology of colon cancer . Cancer Surv. , 8 : 189
  • Barnes , S. , Grubbs , C. and Setchell , K. D. R. 1990 . “ Soybeans inhibit mammary tumors in rat models of breast cancer ” . In Mutagens and Carcinogens in the Diet , Edited by: Pariza , M. W. , Aeschbacher , H. , Felton , J. S. and Sato , S. 239 New York : Wiley‐Liss .
  • Hsing , A. W. and Comstock , G. W. 1989 . Serum hormones and risk of subsequent prostate cancer. . Am. J. Epidem. , 130 : 829
  • Mills , P. K. , Beeson , W. L. , Phillips , R. L. and Fraser , G. E. 1989 . Cohort study of diet, lifestyle and prostate cancer in adventist men . Cancer , 64 : 598
  • Severson , R. K. , Nomura , A. M. Y. , Grove , J. S. and Stemmermann , G. N. 1989 . A prospective study of demographics and prostate cancer among men of Japanese ancestry in Hawaii . Cancer Res. , 49 : 1857
  • Howie , B. J. and Schultz , T. D. 1985 . Dietary and hormonal interrelationships among vegetarian Seventh‐Day Adventists and non‐vegetarian men . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 42 : 127
  • Hamalainen , E. , Adlercreutz , H. , Puska , P. and Pietinen , P. 1984 . Diet and serum hormones in healthy men . J. Steroid Biochem. , 20 : 459
  • Hamalainen , E. , Adlercreutz , H. , Puska , P. and Pietnen , P. 1983 . Decrease of serum total and free testosterone during a low‐fat high fiber diet . J. Steroid Biochem. , 18 : 369
  • Makela , S. , Pylkkanen , Santti , R. and Adlercreutz , H. 1991 . Role of plant estrogens in normal and estrogen‐related altered growth of the mouse prostate . Proc. Conference on Effects of Food on the Immune and Hormonal System . 1991 , Zurich, Switzerland. pp. 135
  • Diplock , A. T. 1991 . Antioxidant nutrients and disease prevention: an overview . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 53 : 189S
  • Halliwell , B. 1989 . Free radicals, reactive oxygen species and human disease: a critical evaluation with special reference to atherosclerosis . Br. J. Exp. Pathol. , 70 : 737
  • Weisburger , J. H. 1991 . Nutritional approach to cancer prevention with emphasis on vitamins, antioxidants and carotenoids . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 53 : 226S
  • Graf , E. and Eaton , J. W. 1990 . Antioxidant functions of phytic acid . Free Rad. Biol. Med. , 8 : 61
  • Namiki , M. 1990 . Antioxidants/antimutagens in foods . CRC Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. , 29 : 273
  • McLaughlin , P. J. and Weihrauch , J. L. 1979 . Vitamin E content in foods . J. Am. Diet. Assoc , 75 : 647
  • Combs , G. F. and Combs , S. B. 1986 . The Role of Selenium in Nutrition , 41 New York : Academic Press .
  • Betschart , A. E. 1988 . “ Nutritional quality of wheat foods ” . In Cereal Science and Technology , Edited by: Pomeranz , Y. 91 St. Paul : American Association of Cereal Chemists .
  • Collins , F. W. 1986 . “ Oat phenolics: structure, occurrence and function ” . In Oats: Chemistry and Technology , Edited by: Webster , F. H. 227 American Association of Cereal Chemists .
  • Collins , F. W. 1989 . Oat phenolics: avenanthramides, novel substituted N‐cinnamoylanthranilate alkaloids from oat groats and hull . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 37 : 60
  • Onyeheho , S. N. and Hettiarachchy , N. S. 1992 . Antioxidant activity of durum wheat bran . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 49 : 1496
  • Fulcher , R. G. , O'Brien , T. P. and Lee , J. W. 1972 . Conventional and fluorescence microscopy of the cell wall with emphasis on phenol‐carbohydrate complexes in wheat . Aust. J. Biol. Sci. , 25 : 23
  • Pussayanawin , V. and Wetzel , D. L. 1987 . High performance liquid chromatographic determination of feru‐lic acid in wheat milling fractions as a measure of bran contamination . J. Chromatogr. , 391 : 243
  • Ramarathnam , N. , Osawa , T. , Namiki , M. and Kawashiki , S. 1988 . Chemical studies on novel rice hull antioxidants. I. Isolation, fractionation and partial characterization . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 36 : 732
  • Reddy , N. R. , Sathe , S. K. and Salunkhe , D. K. 1982 . Phytates in legumes and cereals. . Adv. Food Res. , 28 : 1
  • Slater , T. F. 1991 . Concluding remarks . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 53 : 394S
  • Block , G. 1992 . The data support a role for antioxidants in reducing cancer risk . Nutr. Rev. , 50 : 207
  • Diplock , A. T. 1992 . The role of antioxidant nutrients in disease . Inform , 3 : 1214
  • Floyd , R. A. 1990 . Role of oxygen free radicals in carcinogenesis and brain ischemia . FASEB J. , 4 : 2587
  • Lacroix , A. and Bhat , P. V. 1988 . Vitamin A and caro‐tenoids physiology and role in cancer prevention and treatment: an overview . Nutr. Qt. , 12 : 20
  • Byers , T. and Perry , G. 1992 . Dietary carotenes, vitamin C, and vitamin E as protective antioxidants in human cancers . Ann. Rev. Nutr. , 12 : 139
  • Combs , G. F. and Clark , L. 1985 . C, Can dietary selenium modify cancer risk? . Nutr. Rev. , 43 : 325
  • Chen , J. , Geissler , C. , Parpia , B. , Li , J. and Campbell , T. C. 1992 . Antioxidant status and cancer mortality in China . Int. J. Epidetn. , 21 : 625
  • Horwitt , M. K. 1991 . Data supporting supplementation of humans with vitamin E . J. Nutr. , 121 : 424
  • Tubiana , M. 1991 . Human carcinogenesis — introductory remarks . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 53 : 223S
  • Steinberg , D. 1992 . Antioxidants in the prevention of human atherosclerosis . Circulation , 85 : 2338
  • Janero , D. R. 1991 . Therapeutic potential of vitamin E in the pathogenesis of spontaneous atherosclerosis. . Free Rad. Biol. Med. , 11 : 129
  • Kubow , S. 1992 . Routes of formation and toxic consequences of lipid oxidation products in foods . Free Rad. Biol. Med , 12 : 63
  • Machlin , L. J. and Bendich , A. 1987 . Free radical tissue damage: protective role of antioxidant nutrients . FASEB J. , 1 : 441
  • McCay , P. B. 1985 . Vitamin E: interactions with free radicals and ascorbate . Annu. Rev. Nutr. , 5 : 323
  • Chow , C. K. 1991 . Vitamin E and oxidative stress . Free Rad. Biol. Med , 11 : 215
  • Bendich , A. , Machlin , L. J. , Scandura , O. , Burton , G. W. and Wayer , D. D. M. 1986 . The antioxidant role of vitamin C . Adv. Free Rad. Biol. Med , 2 : 419
  • Chou , P. T. and Khan , A. U. 1983 . L‐Ascorbic quenching of singlet delta molecular oxygen in aqueous media: generalized antioxidant property of vitamin C . Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. , 115 : 932
  • Burton , G. W. , Wronska , U. , Stone , L. , Foster , D. O. and Ingold , K. U. 1990 . Biokinetics of dietary RRR‐alpha tocopherol in the male guinea pig at three dietary levels of vitamin C and two levels of vitamin E does not “spare”; vitamin E . in vivo, Lipids , 25 : 199
  • Burton , G. W. and Ingold , K. U. 1984 . P‐Carotene: an unusual type of lipid antioxidant . Science , 224 : 569
  • Graf , E. , Empson , K. L. and Eaton , J. W. 1987 . Phytic acid. A natural antioxidant . J. Biol. Chem. , 262 : 11647
  • Thompson , L. U. 1993 . Potential health benefits and problems associated with antinutrients in foods . Food Res. Int. , 26 : 131
  • Luc , G. and Fruchart , J. C. 1991 . Oxidation of lipopro‐teins and atherosclerosis . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 53 : 206S
  • Pryor , W. A. 1987 . “ The involvement of free radicals in chemical carcinogenesis ” . In Anticarcinogenesis and Radiation Protection , Edited by: Cerutti , P. A. , Nygaard , O. F. and Simic , M. G. 1 New York : Plenum Press .
  • Cerutti , P. A. 1985 . Prooxidant states and tumor promotion . Science , 227 : 375
  • Di Masdo , P. , Murphy , M. E. and Sies , H. 1991 . Antioxidant defense system: the role of carotenoids, toco‐pherols.andthiols . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 53 : 194S
  • Niki , E. , Yamamoto , Y. , Komuro , E. and Sato , K. 1991 . Membrane damage due to lipid oxidation . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 53 : 201S
  • Ziegler , R. G. 1991 . Vegetables, fruits and carotenoids and the risk of cancer . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 53 : 251S
  • Stahelin , H. B. , Gey , K. F. , Eichholzer , M. and Ludin , E. 1991 . β‐Carotene and cancer prevention: the Basel study . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 53 : 265S
  • Knekt , P. , Aromaa , A. , Maatela , J. , Aara , R. K. , Nikkari , T. , Hakama , M. , Hakulinen , Peto , R. and Teppo , L. 1991 . Vitamin E and cancer prevention . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 53 : 283S
  • Sun , Y. 1990 . Free radicals, antioxidant enzymes, and carcinogenesis. . Free Rad. Biol. Med. , 8 : 583
  • Stringer , M. D. , Gorog , P. G. , Freeman , A. and Kakkar , V. V. 1989 . Lipid peroxides and atherosclerosis . Br. Med. J. , 298 : 281
  • Yagi , K. 1987 . Lipid peroxides and human diseases . Chem. Phys. Lipids , 45 : 337
  • Duthie , G. G. , Wahle , K. W. J. and James , W. P. T. 1989 . Oxidants, antioxidants and cardiovascular disease . Nutr. Res. Rev. , 2 : 51
  • Stampfer , M. J. and Rimm , E. B. 1993 . A review of the epidemiology of dietary antioxidants and risk of coronary heart disease . Can. J. Card. , in press
  • Steinberg , D. 1991 . Antioxidants and atherosclerosis . Circulation , 84 : 1420
  • Glavind , J. , Hartman , S. , Clemmesen , J. , Jessen , K. E. and Dam , H. 1952 . Role of lipoperoxidases in human pathology. II. The presence of peroxidized lipids in atherosclerotic aorta . Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Scand , 30 : 1
  • Gey , K. F. , Puska , P. , Jordan , P. and Moser , U. K. 1991 . Inverse correlation between plasma vitamin E and mortality from ischemic heart disease in cross‐cultural epidemiology . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 53 : 326S
  • Wilson , R. B. , Middleton , C. C. and Sun , G. Y. 1978 . Vitamin E, antioxidants, and lipids peroxidation in experimental atherosclerosis of rabbits . J. Nutr. , 108 : 1858
  • Nelson , J. S. 1980 . “ Pathology of vitamin E deficiency ” . In Vitamin E, A Comprehensive Treatise , Edited by: Machlin , L. J. 397 New York : Dekker .
  • Sulkin , N. M. and Sulan , D. F. 1960 . Intimal lesions in arteries of vitamin E deficient rats . Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. , 103 : 111
  • Van Vleet , J. F. , Ferras , V. and Ruth , G. R. 1977 . Ultra‐structural alterations in nutritional cardiomyopathy of Se‐vitamin E‐deficient swine. II. Vascular lesions . Lab. Invest. , 37 : 201
  • Nafstad , I. 1974 . Endothelial damage and platelet thrombosis associated with PUFA‐rich, vitamin E‐deficient diet fed pig . Thromb. Res. , 5 : 251
  • Hennig , B. , Enoch , C. and Chow , C. K. 1987 . Protection by vitamin E against endothelial cell injury by linoleic acid hydroperoxides . Nutr. Res. , 7 : 1253
  • Yamamoto , A. , Hara , H. , Taka‐ichi , S. , Wakasugi , J. and Tomikawa , M. 1988 . Studies on the mechanism of the antiatherogenic activity of probucol (1) effect of probucol on foam cell formation from macrophages . Proc. 8th Int. Symp. Atheroscl. , : 1048
  • Wetrope , K. L. , Miller , R. A. and Wilson , R. A. 1982 . Vitamin E in rabbit model of endogenous hyper‐cholesterolemia and atherosclerosis . Nutr. Rep. Int. , 25 : 83
  • Donaldson , W. E. 1982 . Atherosclerosis in cholesterol fed Japanese quail: evidence for amelioration by dietary vitamin E . Poultry Sci. , 61 : 2079
  • Szceklik , A. , Gryglenski , R. J. , Domagala , B. , Dworski , R. and Basista , M. 1985 . Dietary supplementation with vitamin E in hyperlipoproteinemias: effects on plasma peroxides, antioxidant activity, prostacyclin generation, and platelet aggregability . Thromb. Hemost. , 54 : 425
  • Bitman , J. , Weyant , J. , Wood , D. L. and Wrenn , T. R. 1976 . Vitamin E, cholesterol, and lipids during atherogenesis in rabbits . Lipids , 11 : 449
  • Paul , J. , Bai , N. and Devi , G. L. 1989 . Effects of vitamin E on lipid components of atherogenic rats . Inst. J. Vitamin Nutr. Res. , 59 : 35
  • Muckel , T. J. and Nazir , D. J. 1989 . Variation in human blood high density lipoprotein response to oral vitamin E megadosage . Am. J. Clin. Pathol. , 91 : 165
  • Parthasarathy , S. , Young , S. G. , Witztum , J. L. , Pittmann , R. C. and Steinberg , D. 1986 . Probucol inhibits oxidative modification of low density lipoprotein . J. Clin. Invest. , 77 : 641
  • Yamomoto , A. , Takaichi , S. and Hara , H. 1986 . Probucol prevents lipid storage in macrophages . Atherosclerosis , 62 : 209
  • Kita , T. , Nagano , Y. and Yokode , M. 1987 . Probucol prevents the progression of atherosclerosis in Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbit in animal model for familial hypercholesterolemia . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. , 84 : 5928
  • Carew , T. E. , Schwenke , D. C. and Steinberg , D. 1987 . Antiathetogenic effect of probucol unrelated to its hypocholesterolemic effect: evidence that antioxidants in vivo can selectively inhibit low density lipoprotein degradation in macrophage‐rich fatty streaks and slow the progression of atherosclerosis in the Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbit . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. , 84 : 7725
  • Bjorkhem , I. , Henriksson‐Frayschuss , A. , Breuer , O. , Dieztalusy , V. , Berglund , L. and Henriksson , P. 1991 . The antioxidant butylated hydroxytoluene protects against atherosclerosis . Atheroscl. Thromb. , 11 : 15
  • Rozewicka , L. , Barcew‐Wiszniewska , B. , Wojdcki , J. , Samochowiec , L. and Krasowska , B. 1991 . Protective effect of selenium and vitamin E against changes induced in heart vessels of rabbits fed chronically on a high‐fat diet . Kitasato Arch. Exp. Med. , 64 : 185
  • Jialal , I. and Grundy , S. M. 1992 . Effect of dietary supplementation with alpha‐tocopherol on the oxidative modification of low density lipoprotein . J. Lipid Res. , 33 : 899
  • Kok , F. J. , de Bruijn , A. M. , Vermeeren , R. , Hofman , A. , van Laar , A. , de Bruin , M. , Hermus , R. J. J. and Valkenburg , H. A. 1987 . Serum selenium, vitamin antioxidants, and cardiovascular mortality: a 9‐year follow‐up study in the Netherlands . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 45 : 462
  • Manson , J. E. , Stampfer , M. J. , Willett , W. C. , Colditz , G. A. , Rosner , V. , Speizer , F. E. and Hennekens , C. H. 1991 . A prospective study of antioxidant vitamins and incidence of coronary heart disease in women . Circulation , ii : 546 (Abstr.)
  • Rimm , E. B. , Giovannucci , E. L. , Stampfer , M. J. , Colditz , G. A. , Litin , L. B. and Willett , W. 1992 . C, Reproducibility and validity of an expanded self‐administered semi‐quantitative food frequency questionnaire among health professionals . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 135 : 1114
  • Enstrom , J. E. , Kanim , L. E. and Klein , M. A. 1992 . Vitamin C intake and mortality among a sample of the United States population . Epidemiology , 3 : 194
  • World Health Organization . 1987 . Selenium , Geneva : World Health Organization .
  • Oldfield , J. E. 1991 . Some implications of selenium for human health . Nutr. Today , 26 : 6
  • Troll , W. and Wiesner , R. 1985 . The role of oxygen radicals as a possible mechanism of tumor promotion . Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. , 25 : 509
  • Cerutti , P. A. 1986 . “ The role of active oxygen in tumor promotion ” . In Biochemical and Molecular Epidemiology of Cancer , Edited by: Harris , C. C. 167 New York : Alan R. Liss .
  • Kensler , T. M. and Trush , M. A. 1984 . Role of oxygen radical in tumor promotion . Environ. Mutagen. , 6 : 593
  • Kensler , T. M. and Taffe , B. G. 1986 . Free radical in tumor promotion . Adv. Free Rad. Biol. Med. , 2 : 347
  • Bailey , G. S. and Williams , D. E. 1993 . Potential mechanisms for food related carcinogens and anticarcinogens . Food Tech. , 47 : 105
  • Stich , H. F. and Rosin , M. P. 1984 . “ Naturally occurring phenolics as antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic agents ” . In Nutritional and Toxicological Aspects of Food Safety , Edited by: Friedman , M. 1 New York : Plenum Press .
  • Hayatsu , H. , Arimoto , S. and Negishi , T. 1988 . Dietary inhibitors of mutagenesis and carcinogenesis . Mut. Res. , 202 : 429
  • Schrauzer , G. N. 1988 . “ Selenium and cancer ” . In Selenium in Medicine and Biology , Edited by: Neve , J. and Favier , A. 251 New York : Walter de Gruter .
  • Peretz , A. 1988 . “ Selenium in inflammation and immunity ” . In Selenium in Medicine and Biology , Edited by: Neve , J. and Favier , A. 235 New York : Walter de Grater .
  • Gaby , S. K. , Bendich , A. , Singh , V. N. and Machlin , L. J. 1991 . Vitamin Intake and Health , New York : Marcel Dekker .
  • Krinsky , N. I. 1991 . Effects of carotenoids in cellular and animal systems . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 53 (Suppl.) : 238S
  • Nielsen , B. K. , Thompson , L. U. and Bird , R. P. 1987 . Effect of phytic acid on colonic epithelial cell proliferation . Cancer Lett. , 37 : 317
  • Thompson , L. U. and Zhang , L. 1991 . Phytic acid and minerals: effect on early markers of risk for mammary and colon carcinogenesis . Carcinogenesis , 12 : 2041
  • Shamsuddin , A. M. , Elsayed , A. M. and Ullah , A. 1988 . Suppression of large intestinal cancer in F‐344 rats by inositol hexaphosphate . Carcinogenesis , 9 : 577
  • Shamsuddin , A. M. and Ullah , A. 1989 . Inositol hexaphosphate inhibits large intestinal cancer in F‐344 rats 5 months following induction by azoxymethane . Carcinogenesis , 10 : 625
  • Jariwalla , R. J. , Sabin , R. , Lawson , S. , Bloch , D. A. , Prender , M. , Andrews , V. and Herman , Z. S. 1988 . Effects of dietary phytic acid (phytate) on the incidence and growth rate of tumors promoted in Fisher rats by magnesium supplement . Nutr. Res. , 8 : 813
  • Nelson , R. L. , Yoo , S. J. , Tanure , J. C. , Andrian‐opolous , G. and Misumi , A. 1989 . The effect of iron on experimental colorectal carcinogenesis . AntiCancer Res. , 9 : 1477
  • Block , G. , Patterson , B. and Subar , A. 1992 . Fruit vegetables, and cancer prevention: a review of the epidemiological evidence . Nutr. Cancer , 18 : 1
  • Chen , J. , Geissler , C. , Parpia , B. , Li , J. and Campbell , T. C. 1992 . Antioxidant status and cancer mortality in China . Int. J. Epidem. , 21 : 625

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.