642
Views
8
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Articles

Discerning the role of polymicrobial biofilms in the ascent, prevalence, and extent of heteroresistance in clinical practice

ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon
Pages 162-191 | Received 03 Jun 2020, Accepted 06 Dec 2020, Published online: 02 Feb 2021

References

  • Abisado RG, Benomar S, Klaus JR, Dandekar AA, Chandler JR. 2018. Bacterial quorum sensing and microbial community interactions. mBio. 9:e02331-17.
  • Adler M, Anjum M, Berg OG, Andersson DI, Sandegren L. 2014. High fitness costs and instability of gene duplications reduce rates of evolution of new genes by duplication-divergence mechanisms. Mol Biol Evol. 31:1526–1535.
  • Aldred KJ, Kerns RJ, Osheroff N. 2014. Mechanism of quinolone action and resistance. Biochemistry. 53:1565–1574.
  • Alexander HE, Leidy G. 1947. Mode of action of streptomycin on type B Hemophilus influenzae : II. Nature of resistant variants. J Exp Med. 85:607–621.
  • Allison KR, Brynildsen MP, Collins JJ. 2011. Heterogeneous bacterial persisters and engineering approaches to eliminate them. Curr Opin Microbiol. 14:593–598.
  • Anderl JN, Zahller J, Roe F, Stewart PS. 2003. Role of nutrient limitation and stationary-phase existence in Klebsiella pneumoniae biofilm resistance to ampicillin and ciprofloxacin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 47:1251–1256.
  • Anderson SE, Sherman EX, Weiss DS, Rather PN. 2018. Aminoglycoside Heteroresistance in Acinetobacter baumannii AB5075. mSphere. 3:e00271–18.
  • Andersson DI, Hughes D. 2010. Antibiotic resistance and its cost: is it possible to reverse resistance? Nat Rev Microbiol. 8:260–271.
  • Andersson DI, Nicoloff H, Hjort K. 2019. Mechanisms and clinical relevance of bacterial heteroresistance. Nat Rev Microbiol. 17:479–496.
  • Arora DP, Hossain S, Xu Y, Boon EM. 2015. Nitric oxide regulation of bacterial biofilms. Biochemistry. 54:3717–3728.
  • Arzanlou M, Chai WC, Venter H. 2017. Intrinsic, adaptive and acquired antimicrobial resistance in Gram-negative bacteria. Essays Biochem. 61:49–59.
  • Aslam B, Wang W, Arshad MI, Khurshid M, Muzammil S, Rasool MH, Nisar MA, Alvi RF, Aslam MA, Qamar MU, et al. 2018. Antibiotic resistance: a rundown of a global crisis. Infect Drug Resist. 11:1645–1658.
  • Azam MW, Khan AU. 2019. Updates on the pathogenicity status of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Drug Discov Today. 24:350–359.
  • Azoulay E, Timsit JF, Tafflet M, de Lassence A, Darmon M, Zahar JR, Adrie C, Garrouste-Orgeas M, Cohen Y, Mourvillier B, et al., Outcomerea Study Group. 2006. Candida colonization of the respiratory tract and subsequent Pseudomonas ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest. 129:110–117.
  • Bagge N, Hentzer M, Andersen JB, Ciofu O, Givskov M, Høiby N. 2004. Dynamics and spatial distribution of beta-lactamase expression in Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 48:1168–1174.
  • Bai B, Lin Z, Pu Z, Xu G, Zhang F, Chen Z, Sun X, Zheng J, Li P, Deng Q, et al. 2019. In vitro activity and heteroresistance of omadacycline against clinical Staphylococcus aureus isolates from China reveal the impact of omadacycline susceptibility by branched-chain amino acid transport system II carrier protein, Na/Pi cotransporter family protein, and fibronectin-binding protein. Front Microbiol. 10:2546.
  • Bakthavatchalam YD, Ramaswamy B, Janakiraman R, Steve RJ, Veeraraghavan B. 2018. Genomic insights of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) with reduced teicoplanin susceptibility: a case of fatal necrotizing fasciitis. J Glob Antimicrob Resist. 14:242–245.
  • Bakthavatchalam YD, Veeraraghavan B, Peter JV, Rajinikanth J, Inbanathan FY, Devanga Ragupathi NK, Rajamani Sekar SK. 2016. Novel observations in 11 heteroresistant vancomycin-intermediate methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains from South India. Genome Announc. 4:e01425–16.
  • Balaban NQ, Helaine S, Lewis K, Ackermann M, Aldridge B, Andersson DI, Brynildsen MP, Bumann D, Camilli A, Collins JJ, et al. 2019. Definitions and guidelines for research on antibiotic persistence. Nat Rev Microbiol. 17:441–448.
  • Band VI, Crispell EK, Napier BA, Herrera CM, Tharp GK, Vavikolanu K, Pohl J, Read TD, Bosinger SE, Trent MS, et al. 2016. Antibiotic failure mediated by a resistant subpopulation in Enterobacter cloacae. Nat Microbiol. 1:16053.
  • Band VI, Satola SW, Burd EM, Farley MM, Jacob JT, Weiss DS. 2018. Carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae exhibiting clinically undetected colistin heteroresistance leads to treatment failure in a murine model of infection. mBio. 9:e02448–17.
  • Band VI, Weiss DS. 2019. Heteroresistance: a cause of unexplained antibiotic treatment failure? PLoS Pathog. 15:e1007726.
  • Bardet L, Baron S, Leangapichart T, Okdah L, Diene SM, Rolain JM. 2017. Deciphering heteroresistance to colistin in a Klebsiella pneumoniae isolate from Marseille, France. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 61:e00356–17.
  • Baron S, Hadjadj L, Rolain JM, Olaitan AO. 2016. Molecular mechanisms of polymyxin resistance: knowns and unknowns. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 48:583–591.
  • Basco MDS, Kothari A, McKinzie PB, Revollo JR, Agnihothram S, Azevedo MP, Saccente M, Hart ME. 2019. Reduced vancomycin susceptibility and increased macrophage survival in Staphylococcus aureus strains sequentially isolated from a bacteraemic patient during a short course of antibiotic therapy. J Med Microbiol. 68:848–859.
  • Bassetti M, Vena A, Croxatto A, Righi E, Guery B. 2018. How to manage Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections. Drugs Context. 7:212527.
  • Beaudoin T, Yau YCW, Stapleton PJ, Gong Y, Wang PW, Guttman DS, Waters V. 2017. Staphylococcus aureus interaction with Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm enhances tobramycin resistance. NPJ Biofilms Microbiomes. 3:25.
  • Ben-Ami R, Zimmerman O, Finn T, Amit S, Novikov A, Wertheimer N, Lurie-Weinberger M, Berman J. 2016. Heteroresistance to fluconazole is a continuously distributed phenotype among Candida glabrata clinical strains associated with in vivo persistence. mBio. 7:1–12.
  • Berglund B. 2019. Acquired resistance to colistin via chromosomal and plasmid-mediated mechanisms in Klebsiella pneumoniae. Infectious Microbes Diseases. 1:10–19.
  • Bernier SP, Surette MG. 2013. Concentration-dependent activity of antibiotics in natural environments. Front Microbiol. 4:20.
  • Bernier SP, Létoffé S, Delepierre M, Ghigo JM. 2011. Biogenic ammonia modifies antibiotic resistance at a distance in physically separated bacteria. Mol Microbiol. 81:705–716.
  • Bisht K, Wakeman CA. 2019. Discovery and therapeutic targeting of differentiated biofilm subpopulations. Front Microbiol. 10:1908.
  • Bjelaković G, Stojanović I, Jevtović Stoimenov T, Pavlović D, Kocić G, Rossi S, Tabolacci C, Nikolić J, Sokolović D, Bjelakovic L. 2010. Metabolic correlations of glucocorticoids and polyamines in inflammation and apoptosis. Amino Acids. 39:29–43.
  • Blair JMA, Webber MA, Baylay AJ, Ogbolu DO, Piddock LJV. 2015. Molecular mechanisms of antibiotic resistance. Nat Rev Microbiol. 13:42–51.
  • Borriello G, Werner E, Roe F, Kim AM, Ehrlich GD, Stewart PS. 2004. Oxygen limitation contributes to antibiotic tolerance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in biofilms. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 48:2659–2664.
  • Bragonzi A, Farulla I, Paroni M, Twomey KB, Pirone L, Lorè NI, Bianconi I, Dalmastri C, Ryan RP, Bevivino A. 2012. Modelling co-infection of the cystic fibrosis lung by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Burkholderia cenocepacia reveals influences on biofilm formation and host response. PLoS One. 7:e52330.
  • Brauner A, Fridman O, Gefen O, Balaban NQ. 2016. Distinguishing between resistance, tolerance and persistence to antibiotic treatment. Nat Rev Microbiol. 14:320–330.
  • Brooun A, Liu SH, Lewis K. 2000. A dose-response study of antibiotic resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms 1. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 44:640–646.
  • Bush K. 2010. Bench-to-bedside review: the role of beta-lactamases in antibiotic-resistant Gram-negative infections. Crit Care. 14:224.
  • Çağlan E, Nigiz Ş, Sancak B, et al. 2019. Resistance and heteroresistance to colistin among clinical isolates of Acinetobacter baumannii. Acta Microbiol Immunol Hung. 6:1–5.
  • Cain AK, Boinett CJ, Barquist L, Dordel J, Fookes M, Mayho M, Ellington MJ, Goulding D, Pickard D, Wick RR, et al. 2018. Morphological, genomic and transcriptomic responses of Klebsiella pneumoniae to the last-line antibiotic colistin. Sci Rep. 8:9868.
  • Campanile F, Bongiorno D, Falcone M, Vailati F, Pasticci MB, Perez M, Raglio A, Rumpianesi F, Scuderi C, Suter F, et al. 2012. Changing Italian nosocomial-community trends and heteroresistance in Staphylococcus aureus from bacteremia and endocarditis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 31:739–745.
  • Capone A, Cafiso V, Campanile F, Parisi G, Mariani B, Petrosillo N, Stefani S. 2016. In vivo development of daptomycin resistance in vancomycin-susceptible methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus severe infections previously treated with glycopeptides. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 35:625–631.
  • CDC. 2019. Antibiotic resistance threats in the United States, 2019. Atlanta (GA): U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, CDC.
  • Charretier Y, Diene SM, Baud D, Chatellier S, Santiago-Allexant E, van Belkum A, Guigon G, Schrenzel J. 2018. Colistin heteroresistance and involvement of the PmrAB regulatory system in Acinetobacter baumannii. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 62:e00788-18.
  • Chen CJ, Huang YC, Chiu CH. 2015. Multiple pathways of cross-resistance to glycopeptides and daptomycin in persistent MRSA bacteraemia. J Antimicrob Chemother. 70:2965–2972.
  • Cheng YH, Lin TL, Lin YT, Wang JT. 2016. Amino acid substitutions of CrrB responsible for resistance to colistin through CrrC in Klebsiella pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 60:3709–3716.
  • Chen Y, Hu D, Zhang Q, Liao XP, Liu YH, Sun J. 2017. Efflux pump overexpression contributes to tigecycline heteroresistance in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 7:37.
  • Chen L, Lin J, Lu H, Zhang X, Wang C, Liu H, Zhang X, Li J, Cao J, Zhou T. 2020. Deciphering colistin heteroresistance in Acinetobacter baumannii clinical isolates from Wenzhou, China. J Antibiot (Tokyo). 73:463–470.
  • Cheong JWS, Harris P, Oman K, Norton R. 2011. Challenges in the microbiological diagnosis and management of hVISA infections. Pathology. 43:357–361.
  • Cheong HS, Kim SY, Wi YM, Peck KR, Ko KS. 2019. Colistin heteroresistance in Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates and diverse mutations of PmrAB and PhoPQ in resistant subpopulations. JCM. 8:1444.
  • Choi HJ, Kil MC, Choi JY, Kim SJ, Park KS, Kim YJ, Ko KS. 2017. Characterisation of successive Acinetobacter baumannii isolates from a deceased haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis patient. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 49:102–106.
  • Chung DR, Lee C, Kang YR, Baek JY, Kim S H, Ha YE, Kang C-I, Peck KR, Lee NY, Song J-H. 2015. Genotype-specific prevalence of heterogeneous vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus in Asian countries. Int J Antimicrob. Agents. 46(3):338–341. DOI:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2015.03.009.
  • Claeys KC, Lagnf AM, Hallesy JA, Compton MT, Gravelin AL, Davis SL, Rybak MJ. 2016. Pneumonia caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: does vancomycin heteroresistance matter? Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 60:1708–1716.
  • CLSI. 2016. Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing.
  • Coelho C, de Lencastre H, Aires-de-Sousa M. 2017. Frequent occurrence of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole hetero-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates in different African countries. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 36:1243–1252.
  • Conlon BP. 2014. Staphylococcus aureus chronic and relapsing infections: evidence of a role for persister cells: an investigation of persister cells, their formation and their role in S. aureus disease. Bioessays. 36:991–996.
  • Conlon BP, Rowe SE, Lewis K. 2015. Persister cells in biofilm associated infections. Adv in Exp Med Biol. 831:1–9.
  • Conlon BP, Rowe SE, Lewis K. 2015. Persister cells in biofilm associated infections. Adv Exp Med Biol. 831:1–9.
  • Cui L, Ma X, Sato K, Okuma K, Tenover FC, Mamizuka EM, Gemmell CG, Kim MN, Ploy MC, El Solh N, et al. 2003. Cell wall thickening is a common feature of vancomycin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. J Clin Microbiol. 41:5–14.
  • da Costa TM, Morgado PGM, Cavalcante FS, Damasco AP, Nouér SA, Dos Santos KRN. 2016. Clinical and microbiological characteristics of heteroresistant and vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus from bloodstream infections in a Brazilian teaching hospital. PLoS One. 11:e0160506.
  • Damasco AP, Costa T. M d, Morgado PGM, Guimarães LC, Cavalcante FS, Nouér SA, Santos KRND. 2019. Daptomycin and vancomycin non-susceptible methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clonal lineages from bloodstream infection in a Brazilian teaching hospital. Braz J Infect Dis. 23:139–142.
  • Davies J, Davies D. 2010. Origins and evolution of antibiotic resistance. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 74:417–433.
  • DeLeon S, Clinton A, Fowler H, Everett J, Horswill AR, Rumbaugh KP. 2014. Synergistic interactions of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus in an in vitro wound model. Infect Immun. 82:4718–4728.
  • Dewachter L, Fauvart M, Michiels J. 2019. Bacterial heterogeneity and antibiotic survival: understanding and combatting persistence and heteroresistance. Mol Cell. 76:255–267.
  • Di Gregorio S, Fernandez S, Cuirolo A, Verlaine O, Amoroso A, Mengin-Lecreulx D, Famiglietti A, Joris B, Mollerach M. 2017. Different vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus phenotypes selected from the same ST100-HVISA parental strain. Microb Drug Resist. 23:44–50.
  • Di Gregorio S, Fernandez S, Perazzi B, Bello N, Famiglietti A, Mollerach M. 2016. Increase in IS256 transposition in invasive vancomycin heteroresistant Staphylococcus aureus isolate belonging to ST100 and its derived VISA mutants. Infect Genet Evol. 43:197–202.
  • Driffield K, Miller K, Bostock JM, O’Neill AJ, Chopra I. 2008. Increased mutability of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in biofilms. J Antimicrob Chemother. 61:1053–1056.
  • Duan K, Dammel C, Stein J, Rabin H, Surette MG. 2003. Modulation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa gene expression by host microflora through interspecies communication. Mol Microbiol. 50:1477–1491.
  • Dufour N, Rao RP. 2011. Secondary metabolites and other small molecules as intercellular pathogenic signals. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 314:10–17.
  • Eagle H, Musselman AD. 1948. The rate of bactericidal action of penicillin in vitro as a function of its concentration, and its paradoxically reduced activity at high concentrations against certain organisms. J Exp Med. 88:99–131.
  • EFSA. 2019. The European Union summary report on antimicrobial resistance in zoonotic and indicator bacteria from humans, animals and food in 2017. EFSA J. 17:5598.
  • El-Halfawy OM, Valvano MA. 2011. Heteroresistance of opportunistic bacteria to antimicrobial peptides: a new challenge to antimicrobial therapy of cystic fibrosis infections. Therapy. 8:591–595.9.
  • El-Halfawy OM, Valvano MA. 2012. Non-genetic mechanisms communicating antibiotic resistance: rethinking strategies for antimicrobial drug design. Expert Opin Drug Discov. 7:923–933.
  • El-Halfawy OM, Valvano MA. 2015. Antimicrobial heteroresistance: an emerging field in need of clarity. Clin Microbiol Rev. 28:191–207.
  • El-Halfawy OM, Valvano MA, Andersson DI, et al. 2013. Chemical communication of antibiotic resistance by a highly resistant subpopulation of bacterial cells. PLoS One. 8:e68874.
  • Endimiani A, Perez F, Bonomo RA. 2008. Cefepime: a reappraisal in an era of increasing antimicrobial resistance. Expert Rev anti Infect Ther. 6:805–824.
  • Ernst CM, Braxton JR, Rodriguez-Osorio CA, Zagieboylo AP, Li L, Pironti A, Manson AL, Nair AV, Benson M, Cummins K, et al. 2020. Adaptive evolution of virulence and persistence in carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae. Nat Med. 26:705–711.
  • Ezadi F, Jamali A, Heidari A, Javid N, Ardebili A. 2020. Heteroresistance to colistin in oxacillinase-producing carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii clinical isolates from Gorgan, Northern Iran. J Glob Antimicrob Resist. 21:380–385.
  • Falagas ME, Makris GC, Dimopoulos G, Matthaiou DK. 2008. Heteroresistance: a concern of increasing clinical significance? Clin Microbiol Infect. 14:101–104.
  • Feng X, Zhang Z, Li X, Song Y, Kang J, Yin D, Gao Y, Shi N, Duan J. 2019. Mutations in gyrB play an important role in ciprofloxacin-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. IDR. Volume 12:261–272.
  • Fernandez L, Hancock REW. 2012. Adaptive and mutational resistance: role of porins and efflux pumps in drug resistance. Clin Microbiol Rev. 25:661–681.
  • Ferri M, Ranucci E, Romagnoli P, Giaccone V. 2017. Antimicrobial resistance: a global emerging threat to public health systems. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 57:2857–2876.
  • Filkins LM, Graber JA, Olson DG, Dolben EL, Lynd LR, Bhuju S, O’Toole GA. 2015. Coculture of Staphylococcus aureus with Pseudomonas aeruginosa drives S. aureus towards fermentative metabolism and reduced viability in a cystic fibrosis model. J Bacteriol. 197:2252–2264.
  • Filkins LM, O’Toole GA. 2015. Cystic fibrosis lung infections: polymicrobial, complex, and hard to treat. PLoS Pathog. 11:e1005258.
  • Fleischhacker M, Radecke C, Schulz B, Ruhnke M. 2008. Paradoxical growth effects of the echinocandins caspofungin and micafungin, but not of anidulafungin, on clinical isolates of Candida albicans and C. dubliniensis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 27:127–131.
  • Fleming A. 1929. On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. injluenzae. Br J Exp Pathol. 10:226–236.
  • Flemming HC, Wuertz S. 2019. Bacteria and archaea on earth and their abundance in biofilms. Nat Rev Microbiol. 17:247–260.
  • Formosa C, Herold M, Vidaillac C, Duval RE, Dague E. 2015. Unravelling of a mechanism of resistance to colistin in Klebsiella pneumoniae using atomic force microscopy. J Antimicrob Chemother. 70:2261–2270.
  • Fusco DN, Alexander EL, Weisenberg SA, Mediavilla JR, Kreiswirth BN, Schuetz AN, Jenkins SG, Rhee KY. 2009. Clinical failure of vancomycin in a dialysis patient with methicillin-susceptible vancomycin-heteroresistant S. aureus. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 65:180–183.
  • Ganguly S, Mitchell AP. 2011. Mucosal biofilms of Candida albicans. Curr Opin Microbiol. 14:380–385.
  • Gefen O, Balaban NQ. 2009. The importance of being persistent: heterogeneity of bacterial populations under antibiotic stress: review article. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 33:704–717.
  • Genteluci GL, de Souza PA, Gomes DBC, Sousa VS, de Souza MJ, Abib JRL, de Castro EAR, Rangel K, Villas Bôas MHS. 2020. Polymyxin B heteroresistance and adaptive resistance in multidrug- and extremely drug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii. Curr Microbiol. 77:2300–2306.
  • Golkar Z, Bagasra O, Pace DG. 2014. Bacteriophage therapy: a potential solution for the antibiotic resistance crisis. J Infect Dev Ctries. 8:129–136.
  • Gollan B, Grabe G, Michaux C, Helaine S. 2019. Bacterial persisters and infection: past, present, and progressing. Annu Rev Microbiol. 73:359–385.
  • Guérin F, Isnard C, Sinel C, Morand P, Dhalluin A, Cattoir V, Giard JC. 2016. Cluster-dependent colistin hetero-resistance in Enterobacter cloacae complex. J Antimicrob Chemother. 71:3058–3061.
  • Gusarov I, Shatalin K, Starodubtseva M, Nudler E. 2009. Endogenous nitric oxide protects bacteria against a wide spectrum of antibiotics. Science. 325:1380–1384.
  • Halaby T, Kucukkose E, Janssen AB, Rogers MRC, Doorduijn DJ, van der Zanden AGM, Al Naiemi N, Vandenbroucke-Grauls CMJE, van Schaik W. 2016. Genomic characterization of colistin heteroresistance in Klebsiella pneumoniae during a nosocomial outbreak. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 60:6837–6843.
  • Hall CW, Mah TF. 2017. Molecular mechanisms of biofilm-based antibiotic resistance and tolerance in pathogenic bacteria. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 70:520–526.
  • Hallander HO, Laurell G. 1972. Identification of cephalosporin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus with the disc diffusion method. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1:422–426.
  • Hall-Stoodley L, Costerton JW, Stoodley P. 2004. Bacterial biofilms: from the natural environment to infectious diseases. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2:95–108.
  • Hamet M, Pavon A, Dalle F, Pechinot A, Prin S, Quenot JP, Charles PE. 2012. Candida spp. airway colonization could promote antibiotic-resistant bacteria selection in patients with suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia. Intensive Care Med. 38:1272–1279.
  • Hausner M, Wuertz S. 1999. High rates of conjugation in bacterial biofilms as determined by quantitative in situ analysis. Appl Environ Microbiol. 65:3710–3713.
  • He J, Jia X, Yang S, Xu X, Sun K, Li C, Yang T, Zhang L. 2018. Heteroresistance to carbapenems in invasive Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 51:413–421.
  • Hermes DM, Pormann Pitt C, Lutz L, Teixeira AB, Ribeiro VB, Netto B, Martins AF, Zavascki AP, Barth AL. 2013. Evaluation of heteroresistance to polymyxin B among carbapenem-susceptible and-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Med Microbiol. 62:1184–1189.
  • Higgins PG, Dammhayn C, Hackel M, Seifert H. 2010. Global spread of carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii. J Antimicrob Chemother. 65:233–238.
  • Higgins PG, Schneiders T, Hamprecht A, Seifert H. 2010. In vivo selection of a missense mutation in adeR and conversion of the novel blaOXA-164 gene into blaOXA-58 in carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii isolates from a hospitalized patient . Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 54:5021–5027.
  • Hobley L, Harkins C, MacPhee CE, Stanley-Wall NR. 2015. Giving structure to the biofilm matrix: an overview of individual strategies and emerging common themes. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 39:649–669.
  • Hocquet D, Nordmann P, El Garch F, Cabanne L, Plésiat P. 2006. Involvement of the MexXY-OprM efflux system in emergence of cefepime resistance in clinical strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 50:1347–1351.
  • Hoffman LR, Déziel E, D'Argenio DA, Lépine F, Emerson J, McNamara S, Gibson RL, Ramsey BW, Miller SI. 2006. Selection for Staphylococcus aureus small-colony variants due to growth in the presence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 103:19890–19895.
  • Høiby N, Bjarnsholt T, Givskov M, Molin S, Ciofu O. 2010. Antibiotic resistance of bacterial biofilms. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 35:322–332.
  • Hong YK, Kim H, Ko KS. 2020. Two Types of colistin heteroresistance in Acinetobacter baumannii isolates. Emerg Microbes Infect. 9:2114–2123.
  • Hotterbeekx A, Kumar-Singh S, Goossens H, Malhotra-Kumar S. 2017. In vivo and in vitro interactions between Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus spp. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 7:106.
  • Huang SH, Chen YC, Chuang YC, Chiu SK, Fung CP, Lu PL, Wang LS, Wu TL, Wang JT. 2016. Prevalence of vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus (VISA) and heterogeneous VISA among methicillin-resistant S. aureus with high vancomycin minimal inhibitory concentrations in Taiwan: a multicenter surveillance study, 2012–2013. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 49:701–707.
  • IACG. 2016. Tackling drug-resistant infections globally: final report and recommendations. London (UK): The Review on Antimicrobial Resistance.
  • IACG. 2019. No time to wait: securing the future from drug-resistant infections report to the secretary-general of the United Stations.
  • Jarrad AM, Blaskovich MAT, Prasetyoputri A, Karoli T, Hansford KA, Cooper MA. 2018. Detection and investigation of eagle effect resistance to vancomycin in Clostridium difficile With an ATP-bioluminescence assay. Front Microbiol. 9:1420.
  • Jayol A, Nordmann P, Brink A, Poirel L. 2015. Heteroresistance to colistin in Klebsiella pneumoniae associated with alterations in the PhoPQ regulatory system. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 59:2780–2784.
  • Jeannot K, Bolard A, Plésiat P. 2017. Resistance to polymyxins in gram-negative organisms. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 49:526–535.
  • Jensen PØ, Kolpen M, Kragh KN, Kühl M. 2017. Microenvironmental characteristics and physiology of biofilms in chronic infections of CF patients are strongly affected by the host immune response. APMIS. 125:276–288.
  • Ji S, Jiang S, Wei X, Sun L, Wang H, Zhao F, Chen Y, Yu Y. 2020. In-host evolution of daptomycin resistance and heteroresistance in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains from three endocarditis patients. J Infect Dis. 221:S243–S52.
  • Jia X, Ma W, He J, Tian X, Liu H, Zou H, Cheng S. 2020. Heteroresistance to cefepime in Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteraemia. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 55:105832.
  • Johnson L, Mulcahy H, Kanevets U, Shi Y, Lewenza S. 2012. Surface-localized spermidine protects the Pseudomonas aeruginosa outer membrane from antibiotic treatment and oxidative stress. J Bacteriol. 194:813–826.
  • Jorge P, Magalhães AP, Alves D. 2019. Antimicrobial resistance three ways: healthcare crisis, major concepts, and the relevance of biofilms. FEMS Microbiol Ecol. 95:fiz115.
  • Juhász E, Iván M, Pintér E, Pongrácz J, Kristóf K. 2017. Colistin resistance among blood culture isolates at a tertiary care centre in Hungary. J Glob Antimicrob Resist. 11:167–170.
  • Kai M, Haustein M, Molina F, Petri A, Scholz B, Piechulla B. 2009. Bacterial volatiles and their action potential. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 81:1001–1012.
  • Kang KN, Klein DR, Kazi MI, Guérin F, Cattoir V, Brodbelt JS, Boll JM. 2019. Colistin heteroresistance in Enterobacter cloacae is regulated by PhoPQ-dependent 4-amino-4-deoxy-l-arabinose addition to lipid A. Mol Microbiol. 111:1604–1616.
  • Kayser FH, Benner EJ, Hoeprich PD. 1970. Acquired and native resistance of Staphylococcus aureus to cephalexin and other beta-lactam antibiotics. Appl Microbiol. 20:1–5.
  • Kean R, Delaney C, Rajendran R, Sherry L, Metcalfe R, Thomas R, McLean W, Williams C, Ramage G. 2018. Gaining insights from Candida biofilm heterogeneity: one size does not fit all. JoF. 4:12.
  • Khan HA, Ahmad A, Mehboob R. 2015. Nosocomial infections and their control strategies. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 5:509–514.
  • Khan HA, Baig FK, Mehboob R. 2017. Nosocomial infections: epidemiology, prevention, control and surveillance. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 7:478–482.
  • Khan SA, Sung K, Layton S, Nawaz MS. 2008. Heteroresistance to vancomycin and novel point mutations in Tn1546 of Enterococcus faecium ATCC 51559. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 31:27–36.
  • Khatib R, Sharma M, Johnson LB, Riederer K, Shemes S, Szpunar S. 2015. Decreasing prevalence of isolates with vancomycin heteroresistance and vancomycin minimum inhibitory concentrations ≥2mg/L in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus over 11years: potential impact of vancomycin treatment guidelines. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 82:245–248.
  • Kim T, Kim ES, Park SY, Sung H, Kim MN, Kim SH, Lee SO, Choi SH, Jeong JY, Woo JH, et al. 2017. Phenotypic changes of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus during vancomycin therapy for persistent bacteraemia and related clinical outcome. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 36:1473–1481.
  • Kim SW, Park SB, Im SP, Lee JS, Jung JW, Gong TW, Lazarte JMS, Kim J, Seo JS, Kim JH, et al. 2018. Outer membrane vesicles from β-lactam-resistant Escherichia coli enable the survival of β-lactam-susceptible E. coli in the presence of β-lactam antibiotics. Sci Rep. 8:5402.
  • Kline KA, Lewis AL. 2016. Gram-positive uropathogens, polymicrobial urinary tract infection, and the emerging microbiota of the urinary tract. Microbiol Spectr. 4.
  • Kohanski MA, DePristo MA, Collins JJ. 2010. Sublethal antibiotic treatment leads to multidrug resistance via radical-induced mutagenesis. Mol Cell. 37:311–320.
  • Kondo N, Kuwahara-Arai K, Kuroda-Murakami H, Tateda-Suzuki E, Hiramatsu K. 2001. Eagle-type methicillin resistance: new phenotype of high methicillin resistance under mec regulator gene control. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 45:815–824.
  • Kong EF, Tsui C, Kucharíková S, Van Dijck P, Jabra-Rizk MA. 2017. Modulation of Staphylococcus aureus response to antimicrobials by the Candida albicans quorum sensing molecule farnesol. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 61:1–14.
  • Korgaonkar A, Trivedi U, Rumbaugh KP, Whiteley M. 2013. Community surveillance enhances Pseudomonas aeruginosa virulence during polymicrobial infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 110:1059–1064.
  • Krause KM, Serio AW, Kane TR, Connolly LE. 2016. Aminoglycosides: an overview. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 6:a027029.
  • Landman D, Salamera J, Quale J. 2013. Irreproducible and uninterpretable polymyxin B MICs for Enterobacter cloacae and Enterobacter aerogenes. J Clin Microbiol. 51:4106–4111.
  • Laxminarayan R, Heymann DL. 2012. Challenges of drug resistance in the developing world. BMJ. 344:e1567.
  • Lebeaux D, Ghigo JM, Beloin C. 2014. Biofilm-related infections: bridging the gap between clinical management and fundamental aspects of recalcitrance toward antibiotics. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 78:510–543.
  • Lee Y-M, Chong YP, Kim M, Eom Y, Kim ES, Kim M, Park K-H, Kim S-H, Lee S-O, Choi S-H, et al. 2020. Long-term methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia persisting for more than 2 weeks: risk factors and outcomes. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 39(4):773–781. DOI:10.1007/s10096-019-03795-6.
  • Lee JH, Lee J. 2010. Indole as an intercellular signal in microbial communities. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 34:426–444.
  • Lee J, Attila C, Cirillo SLG, Cirillo JD, Wood TK. 2009. Indole and 7-hydroxyindole diminish Pseudomonas aeruginosa virulence. Microb Biotechnol. 2:75–90.
  • Lee JH, Burner KD, Fealey ME, Edwards WD, Tazelaar HD, Orszulak TA, Wright AJ, Baddour LM. 2011. Prosthetic valve endocarditis: clinicopathological correlates in 122 surgical specimens from 116 patients (1985-2004). Cardiovasc Pathol. 20:26–35.
  • Lee J, Lee EY, Kim SH, Kim DK, Park KS, Kim KP, Kim YK, Roh TY, Gho YS. 2013. Staphylococcus aureus extracellular vesicles carry biologically active β-lactamase. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 57:2589–2595.
  • Li P, Huang Y, Yu L, Liu Y, Niu W, Zou D, Liu H, Zheng J, Yin X, Yuan J, et al. 2017. Isolation and whole-genome sequence analysis of the imipenem heteroresistant Acinetobacter baumannii clinical isolate HRAB-85. Int J Infect Dis. 62:94–101.
  • Limoli DH, Hoffman LR. 2019. Help, hinder, hide and harm: what can we learn from the interactions between Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus during respiratory infections. Thorax. 74:684–692.
  • Limoli DH, Yang J, Khansaheb MK, Helfman B, Peng L, Stecenko AA, Goldberg JB. 2016. Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa co-infection is associated with cystic fibrosis-related diabetes and poor clinical outcomes. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 35:947–953.
  • Lin J, Xu C, Fang R, Cao J, Zhang X, Zhao Y, Dong G, Sun Y, Zhou T. 2019. Resistance and heteroresistance to colistin in Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates from Wenzhou, China. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 63:e00556-19.
  • Li B, Qiu Y, Zhang J, Huang X, Shi H, Yin H. 2018. Real-time study of rapid spread of antibiotic resistance plasmid in biofilm using microfluidics. Environ Sci Technol. 52:11132–11141.
  • Li J, Rayner CR, Nation RL, Owen RJ, Spelman D, Tan KE, Liolios L. 2006. Heteroresistance to colistin in multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii. AAC. 50:2946–2950.
  • Liu C, Bayer A, Cosgrove SE, Daum RS, Fridkin SK, Gorwitz RJ, Kaplan SL, Karchmer AW, Levine DP, Murray BE, et al. 2011. Clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in adults and children: executive summary. Clin Infect Dis. 52:285–292.
  • Lopes SP, Azevedo NF, Pereira MO. 2014. Emergent Bacteria in cystic fibrosis: in vitro biofilm formation and resilience under variable oxygen conditions . Biomed Res Int. 2014:678301.
  • Lopes SP, Azevedo NF, Pereira MO. 2017. Developing a model for cystic fibrosis sociomicrobiology based on antibiotic and environmental stress. Int J Med Microbiol. 307:460–470.
  • Lopes SP, Ceri H, Azevedo NF, Pereira MO. 2012. Antibiotic resistance of mixed biofilms in cystic fibrosis: impact of emerging microorganisms on treatment of infection. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 40:260–263.
  • López-Camacho E, Paño-Pardo JR, Sotillo A, Elías-López C, Martínez-Martínez L, Gómez-Gil R, Mingorance J. 2019. Meropenem heteroresistance in clinical isolates of OXA-48-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 93:162–166.
  • Lopes SP, Rodrigues ME, Pereira CR, Azevedo NF, Lourenço A, Henriques M, Pereira MO. 2017. Polymicrobial ventilator-associated pneumonia: fighting in vitro Candida albicans-Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms with antifungal-antibacterial combination therapy. PLoS One. 12:e0170433.
  • Lorian V, Silletti RP, Biondo FX, De Freitas CC. 1979. Paradoxical effect of aminoglycoside antibiotics on the growth of gram-negative bacilli. J Antimicrob Chemother. 5:613–616.
  • Lo-Ten-Foe JR, de Smet AMGA, Diederen BMW, Kluytmans JAJW, van Keulen PHJ. 2007. Comparative evaluation of the VITEK 2, disk diffusion, etest, broth microdilution, and agar dilution susceptibility testing methods for colistin in clinical isolates, including heteroresistant Enterobacter cloacae and Acinetobacter baumannii strains. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 51:3726–3730.
  • Machado D, Antunes J, Simões A, Perdigão J, Couto I, McCusker M, Martins M, Portugal I, Pacheco T, Batista J, et al. 2018. Contribution of efflux to colistin heteroresistance in a multidrug resistant Acinetobacter baumannii clinical isolate. J Med Microbiol. 67:740–749.
  • Magalhães AP, Jorge P, Pereira MO. 2019. Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus communication in biofilm infections: insights through network and database construction. Crit Rev Microbiol. 45:712–728.
  • Manzano-Gayosso P, Hernández-Hernández F, Zavala-Velásquez N, Méndez-Tovar LJ, Naquid-Narváez JM, Torres-Rodríguez JM, López-Martínez R. 2008. Candiduria in type 2 diabetes mellitus patients and its clinical significance. Candida spp. antifungal susceptibility. Rev Med Inst Mex Seguro Soc. 46:603–610.
  • Maor Y, Hagin M, Belausov N, Keller N, Ben-David D, Rahav G. 2009. Clinical features of heteroresistant vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia versus those of methicillin-resistant S. aureus bacteremia. J Infect Dis. 199:619–624.
  • Martens E, Demain AL. 2017. The antibiotic resistance crisis, with a focus on the United States. J Antibiot (Tokyo). 70:520–526.
  • Martirosov DM, Bidell MR, Pai MP, Scheetz MH, Rosenkranz SL, Faragon C, Malik M, Mendes RE, Jones RN, McNutt LA, et al. 2017. Relationship between day 1 and day 2 Vancomycin area under the curve values and emergence of heterogeneous vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus (hVISA) by Etest® macromethod among patients with MRSA bloodstream infections: a pilot study. BMC Infect Dis. 17:534.
  • Matuschek E, Brown DFJ, Kahlmeter G. 2014. Development of the EUCAST disk diffusion antimicrobial susceptibility testing method and its implementation in routine microbiology laboratories. Clin Microbiol Infect. 20:O255–O266.
  • McCormack MG, Smith AJ, Akram AN, Jackson M, Robertson D, Edwards G. 2015. Staphylococcus aureus and the oral cavity: an overlooked source of carriage and infection? Am J Infect Control. 43:35–37.
  • McGann P, Courvalin P, Snesrud E, Clifford RJ, Yoon EJ, Onmus-Leone F, Ong AC, Kwak YI, Grillot-Courvalin C, Lesho E, et al. 2014. Amplification of aminoglycoside resistance gene aphA1 in Acinetobacter baumannii results in tobramycin therapy failure. mBio. 5:e00915.
  • McKay GA, Beaulieu S, Arhin FF, Belley A, Sarmiento I, Parr T, Moeck G. 2009. Time-kill kinetics of oritavancin and comparator agents against Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium. J Antimicrob Chemother. 63:1191–1199.
  • Mei S, Gao Y, Zhu C, et al. 2015. Research of the heteroresistance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa to imipenem. Int J Clin Exp Med. 8:6129–6132.
  • Meyer KS, Urban C, Eagan JA, Berger BJ, Rahal JJ. 1993. Nosocomial outbreak of Klebsiella infection resistant to late-generation cephalosporins. Ann Intern Med. 119:353–358.
  • Moffatt JH, Harper M, Harrison P, Hale JDF, Vinogradov E, Seemann T, Henry R, Crane B, St Michael F, Cox AD, et al. 2010. Colistin resistance in Acinetobacter Baumannii is mediated by complete loss of lipopolysaccharide production. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 54:4971–4977.
  • Moradali MF, Ghods S, Rehm BHA. 2017. Pseudomonas aeruginosa lifestyle: a paradigm for adaptation, survival, and persistence. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 7:39.
  • Morales-León F, Lima CA, González-Rocha G, Opazo-Capurro A, Bello-Toledo H. 2020. Colistin heteroresistance among extended spectrum β-lactamases-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae. Microorganisms. 8:1279–1214.
  • Murray CK, Hospenthal DR. 2005. Treatment of multidrug resistant Acinetobacter. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 18:502–506.
  • Naparstek L, Carmeli Y, Navon-Venezia S, Banin E. 2014. Biofilm formation and susceptibility to gentamicin and colistin of extremely drug-resistant KPC-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae. J Antimicrob Chemother. 69:1027–1034.
  • Negri M, Silva S, Henriques M, Oliveira R. 2012. Insights into Candida tropicalis nosocomial infections and virulence factors. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 31:1399–1412.
  • Nicoloff H, Hjort K, Levin BR, Andersson DI. 2019. The high prevalence of antibiotic heteroresistance in pathogenic bacteria is mainly caused by gene amplification. Nat Microbiol. 4:504–514.
  • Nijland R, Burgess JG. 2010. Bacterial olfaction. Biotechnol J. 5:974–977.
  • Norman TM, Lord ND, Paulsson J, Losick R. 2015. Stochastic switching of cell fate in microbes. Annu Rev Microbiol. 69:381–403.
  • Nseir S, Jozefowicz E, Cavestri B, Sendid B, Di Pompeo C, Dewavrin F, Favory R, Roussel-Delvallez M, Durocher A. 2007. Impact of antifungal treatment on Candida-Pseudomonas interaction: a preliminary retrospective case-control study. Intensive Care Med. 33:137–142.
  • O’Donnell LE, Millhouse E, Sherry L, Kean R, Malcolm J, Nile CJ, Ramage G. 2015. Polymicrobial Candida biofilms: friends and foe in the oral cavity. FEMS Yeast Res. 15:fov077.
  • Okado JB, Avaca-Crusca JS, Oliveira AL, Dabul ANG, Camargo I. L B d C. 2018. Daptomycin and vancomycin heteroresistance revealed among CC5-SCCmecII MRSA clone and in vitro evaluation of treatment alternatives. J Glob Antimicrob Resist. 14:209–216.
  • Orazi G, O’Toole GA. 2017. Pseudomonas aeruginosa alters Staphylococcus aureus sensitivity to vancomycin in a biofilm model of cystic fibrosis infection. MBio. 8:e00873–17.
  • Orazi G, O’Toole GA. 2019. “It takes a village”: mechanisms underlying antimicrobial recalcitrance of polymicrobial biofilms. J Bacteriol. 202:e00530-19.
  • Orazi G, Ruoff KL, O’toole GA. 2019. Pseudomonas aeruginosa increases the sensitivity of biofilm-grown Staphylococcus aureus to membrane-targeting antiseptics and antibiotics. mBio. 10:e01501-19.
  • Pammi M, Zhong D, Johnson Y, Revell P, Versalovic J. 2014. Polymicrobial bloodstream infections in the neonatal intensive care unit are associated with increased mortality: a case-control study. BMC Infect Dis. 14:390.
  • Pamp SJ, Gjermansen M, Johansen HK, Tolker-Nielsen T. 2008. Tolerance to the antimicrobial peptide colistin in Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms is linked to metabolically active cells, and depends on the pmr and mexAB-oprM genes. Mol Microbiol. 68:223–240.
  • Pang Z, Raudonis R, Glick BR, Lin TJ, Cheng Z. 2019. Antibiotic resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa: mechanisms and alternative therapeutic strategies. Biotechnol Adv. 37:177–192.
  • Perez AC, Pang B, King LB, Tan L, Murrah KA, Reimche JL, Wren JT, Richardson SH, Ghandi U, Swords WE, et al. 2014. Residence of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Moraxella catarrhalis within polymicrobial biofilm promotes antibiotic resistance and bacterial persistence in vivo. Pathog Dis. 70:280–288.
  • Peters BM, Jabra-Rizk MA, O’May GA, Costerton JW, Shirtliff ME. 2012. Polymicrobial interactions: impact on pathogenesis and human disease. Clin Microbiol Rev. 25:193–213.
  • Podschun R, Ullmann U. 1998. Klebsiella spp. as nosocomial pathogens: epidemiology, taxonomy, typing methods, and pathogenicity factors. Clin Microbiol Rev. 11:589–603.
  • Poirel L, Jayol A, Nordmann P. 2017. Polymyxins: antibacterial activity, susceptibility testing, and resistance mechanisms encoded by plasmids or chromosomes. Clin Microbiol Rev. 30:557–596.
  • Pournaras S, Kristo I, Vrioni G, Ikonomidis A, Poulou A, Petropoulou D, Tsakris A. 2010. Characteristics of meropenem heteroresistance in Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase (KPC)-producing clinical isolates of K. pneumoniae. J Clin Microbiol. 48:2601–2604.
  • Qin X, Zhou C, Zerr DM, Adler A, Addetia A, Yuan S, Greninger AL. 2018. Heterogeneous antimicrobial susceptibility characteristics in Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates from cystic fibrosis patients. mSphere. 3:1–17.
  • Queenan AM, Bush K. 2007. Carbapenemases: the versatile beta-lactamases. Clin Microbiol Rev. 20:440–458.
  • Radlinski L, Rowe SE, Kartchner LB, Maile R, Cairns BA, Vitko NP, Gode CJ, Lachiewicz AM, Wolfgang MC, Conlon BP. 2017. Pseudomonas aeruginosa exoproducts determine antibiotic efficacy against Staphylococcus aureus. PLoS Biol. 15:e2003981.
  • Rani SA, Pitts B, Beyenal H, Veluchamy RA, Lewandowski Z, Davison WM, Buckingham-Meyer K, Stewart PS. 2007. Spatial patterns of DNA replication, protein synthesis, and oxygen concentration within bacterial biofilms reveal diverse physiological states. J Bacteriol. 189:4223–4233.
  • Reams AB, Roth JR. 2015. Mechanisms of gene duplication and amplification. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. 7:a016592.
  • Robledo IE, Aquino EE, Santé MI, Santana JL, Otero DM, León CF, Vázquez GJ. 2010. Detection of KPC in Acinetobacter spp. in Puerto Rico. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 54:1354–1357.
  • Roca I, Akova M, Baquero F, Carlet J, Cavaleri M, Coenen S, Cohen J, Findlay D, Gyssens I, Heure OE, et al. 2015. The global threat of antimicrobial resistance: science for intervention. New Microbes New Infect. 6:22–29.
  • Rodriguez CH, Traglia G, Bastias N, Pandolfo C, Bruni G, Nastro M, Barrios R, Bavastro EM, Rey MC, Marques IA, et al. 2019. Discrepancies in susceptibility testing to colistin in Acinetobacter baumannii: the influence of slow growth and heteroresistance. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 54:587–591.
  • Romling U, Balsalobre C, Römling U, et al. 2012. Biofilm infections, their resilience to therapy and innovative treatment strategies. J Intern Med. 272:541–561.
  • Rose HR, Holzman RS, Altman DR, Smyth DS, Wasserman GA, Kafer JM, Wible M, Mendes RE, Torres VJ, Shopsin B, et al. 2015. Cytotoxic virulence predicts mortality in nosocomial pneumonia due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Infect Dis. 211:1862–1874.
  • Ryall B, Eydallin G, Ferenci T. 2012. Culture history and population heterogeneity as determinants of bacterial adaptation: the adaptomics of a single environmental transition. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 76:597–625.
  • Ryan RP, Fouhy Y, Garcia BF, Watt SA, Niehaus K, Yang L, Tolker-Nielsen T, Dow JM. 2008. Interspecies signalling via the Stenotrophomonas maltophilia diffusible signal factor influences biofilm formation and polymyxin tolerance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Mol Microbiol. 68:75–86.
  • Sader HS, Jones RN, Rossi KL, Rybak MJ. 2009. Occurrence of vancomycin-tolerant and heterogeneous vancomycin-intermediate strains (hVISA) among Staphylococcus aureus causing bloodstream infections in nine USA hospitals. J Antimicrob Chemother. 64:1024–1028.
  • Safdar N, Maki DG. 2002. The commonality of risk factors for nosocomial colonization and infection with antimicrobial-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus, gram-negative bacilli, Clostridium difficile, and Candida. Ann Intern Med. 136:834–844.
  • Sakoulas G, Moise-Broder PA, Schentag J, Forrest A, Moellering RC, Eliopoulos GM. 2004. Relationship of MIC and bactericidal activity to efficacy of vancomycin for treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. J Clin Microbiol. 42:2398–2402.
  • Sandegren L, Andersson D. 2009. Bacterial gene amplification: implications for the evolution of antibiotic resistance. Nat Rev Microbiol. 7:578–588.
  • Sandoval-Motta S, Aldana M. 2016. Adaptive resistance to antibiotics in bacteria: a systems biology perspective. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Syst Biol Med. 8:253–267.
  • Saravolatz SN, Martin H, Pawlak J, Johnson LB, Saravolatz LD. 2014. Ceftaroline-heteroresistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 58:3133–3136.
  • Satola SW, Farley MM, Anderson KF, Patel JB. 2011. Comparison of detection methods for heteroresistant vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus, with the population analysis profile method as the reference method. J Clin Microbiol. 49:177–183.
  • Scholtzek AD, Hanke D, Eichhorn I, Walther B, Lübke-Becker A, van Duijkeren E, Köck R, Schwarz S, Feßler AT. 2020. Heterogeneity of antimicrobial susceptibility testing results for sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim obtained from clinical equine Staphylococcus aureus isolates using different methods. Vet Microbiol. 242:108600.
  • Schroeder M, Brooks BD, Brooks AE. 2017. The complex relationship between virulence and antibiotic resistance. Genes. 8:39.
  • Serra DO, Richter AM, Klauck G, Mika F, Hengge R. 2013. Microanatomy at cellular resolution and spatial order of physiological differentiation in a bacterial biofilm. mBio. 4:e00103-13.
  • Shafiq I, Bulman ZP, Spitznogle SL, Osorio JE, Reilly IS, Lesse AJ, Parameswaran GI, Mergenhagen KA, Tsuji BT. 2017. A combination of ceftaroline and daptomycin has synergistic and bactericidal activity in vitro against daptomycin nonsusceptible methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Infect Dis (Lond). 49:410–416.
  • Sibley CD, Duan K, Fischer C, Parkins MD, Storey DG, Rabin HR, Surette MG. 2008. Discerning the complexity of community interactions using a Drosophila model of polymicrobial infections. PLoS Pathog. 4:e1000184.
  • Siddiqui AH, Koirala J. 2019. Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA). In: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing.
  • Silva A, Sousa AM, Alves D, Lourenço A, Pereira MO. 2016. Heteroresistance to colistin in Klebsiella pneumoniae is triggered by small colony variants sub-populations within biofilms. Pathog Dis. 74:ftw036.
  • Silva S, Negri M, Henriques M, Oliveira R, Williams DW, Azeredo J. 2012. Candida glabrata, Candida parapsilosis and Candida tropicalis: biology, epidemiology, pathogenicity and antifungal resistance. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 36:288–305.
  • Silveira A. C d O, Cunha G. R d, Caierão J, Cordova C. M M d, d'Azevedo PA. 2015. Molecular epidemiology of heteroresistant vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus in Brazil. Braz J Infect Dis. 19:466–472.
  • Sirot J, Chanal C, Petit A, Sirot D, Labia R, Gerbaud G. 1988. Klebsiella pneumoniae and other Enterobacteriaceae producing novel plasmid-mediated beta-lactamases markedly active against third-generation cephalosporins: epidemiologic studies. Rev Infect Dis. 10:850–859.
  • Sirot D, Sirot J, Labia R, Morand A, Courvalin P, Darfeuille-Michaud A, Perroux R, Cluzel R. 1987. Transferable resistance to third-generation cephalosporins in clinical isolates of Klebsiella pneumoniae: identification of CTX-1, a novel beta-lactamase. J Antimicrob Chemother. 20:323–334.
  • Soares A, Roussel V, Pestel-Caron M, et al. 2019. Understanding ciprofloxacin failure in Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm: persister cells survive matrix disruption. Front Microbiol. 10:2603.
  • Søgaard P. 1985. Population analysis of susceptibility to cefotaxime in enterobacteriaceae. Acta Pathol Microbiol Immunol Scand B. 93:365–369.
  • Søgaard P, Gahrn‐Hansen B. 1986. Population analysis of susceptibility to ciprofloxacin and nalidixic acid in Staphylococcus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacteriaceae. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand Ser B Microbiol. 94 B:351–356.
  • Sola C, Lamberghini RO, Ciarlantini M, Egea AL, Gonzalez P, Diaz EG, Huerta V, Gonzalez J, Corso A, Vilaro M, et al. 2011. Heterogeneous vancomycin-intermediate susceptibility in a community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus epidemic clone, in a case of Infective Endocarditis in Argentina. Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob. 10:15.
  • Sørensen SJ, Bailey M, Hansen LH, Kroer N, Wuertz S. 2005. Studying plasmid horizontal transfer in situ: a critical review. Nat Rev Microbiol. 3:700–710.
  • Sorg RA, Lin L, van Doorn GS, Sorg M, Olson J, Nizet V, Veening JW. 2016. Collective resistance in microbial communities by intracellular antibiotic deactivation. PLoS Biol. 14:e2000631.
  • Srinivas P, Hunt LN, Pouch SM, Thomas K, Goff DA, Pancholi P, Balada-Llasat JM, Bauer KA. 2018. Detection of colistin heteroresistance in Acinetobacter baumannii from blood and respiratory isolates. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 91:194–198.
  • Stacy A, McNally L, Darch SE, Brown SP, Whiteley M. 2016. The biogeography of polymicrobial infection. Nat Rev Microbiol. 14:93–105.
  • Stewart PS, Franklin MJ. 2008. Physiological heterogeneity in biofilms. Nat Rev Microbiol. 6:199–210.
  • Sutherland R, Rolinson GN. 1964. Characteristics of methicillin-resistant staphylococci. J Bacteriol. 87:887–899.
  • Tabor CW, Tabor H. 1984. Polyamines. Annu Rev Biochem. 53:749–790.
  • Tan K, Nguyen J, Nguyen K, Huse HK, Nieberg PH, Wong-Beringer A. 2020. Prevalence of the carbapenem-heteroresistant phenotype among ESBL-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae clinical isolates. J Antimicrob Chemother. 75:1506–1512.
  • Tanner WD, Atkinson RM, Goel RK, et al. 2017. Horizontal transfer of the blaNDM-1 gene to Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter baumannii in biofilms. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 364.
  • Taylor PK, Yeung ATY, Hancock REW. 2014. Antibiotic resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms: towards the development of novel anti-biofilm therapies. J Biotechnol. 191:121–130.
  • Thet KT, Lunha K, Srisrattakarn A, Lulitanond A, Tavichakorntrakool R, Kuwatjanakul W, Charoensri N, Chanawong A. 2020. Colistin heteroresistance in carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii clinical isolates from a Thai University Hospital. World J Microbiol Biotechnol. 36:102.
  • Tkachenko AG, Akhova AV, Shumkov MS, Nesterova LY. 2012. Polyamines reduce oxidative stress in Escherichia coli cells exposed to bactericidal antibiotics. Res Microbiol. 163:83–91.
  • Townsend EM, Sherry L, Rajendran R, Hansom D, Butcher J, Mackay WG, Williams C, Ramage G. 2016. Development and characterisation of a novel three-dimensional inter-kingdom wound biofilm model. Biofouling. 32:1259–1270.
  • Trinh TD, Zasowski EJ, Claeys KC, Casapao AM, Compton M, Lagnf A, Kidambi SD, Levine DP, Rybak MJ. 2018. Role of vancomycin minimum inhibitory concentrations by modified population analysis profile method and clinical outcomes in high inoculum methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections. Infect Dis Ther. 7:161–169.
  • van Hal SJ, Wehrhahn MC, Barbagiannakos T, Mercer J, Chen D, Paterson DL, Gosbell IB. 2011. Performance of various testing methodologies for detection of heteroresistant vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus in bloodstream isolates. J Clin Microbiol. 49:1489–1494.
  • Varona-Barquín A, Iglesias-Losada JJ, Ezpeleta G, Eraso E, Quindós G. 2017. Vancomycin heteroresistant community associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus ST72-SCCmecIVa strain colonizing the nostrils of a five-year-old Spanish girl. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 35:148–152.
  • Vega F, Alarcón P, Domínguez M, Bello H, Riedel G, Mella S, Aguayo A, González-Rocha G. 2015. [Isolation of Staphylococcus aureus hetero-resistant to vancomycin (hVISA) in the Regional Hospital of Concepción, Chile]. Rev Chilena Infectol. 32(5):588–590. DOI:10.4067/S0716-10182015000600017.
  • Vega NM, Allison KR, Khalil AS, Collins JJ. 2012. Signaling-mediated bacterial persister formation. Nat Chem Biol. 8:431–433.
  • Venkatesan N, Perumal G, Doble M. 2015. Bacterial resistance in biofilm-associated bacteria. Future Microbiol. 10:1743–1750.
  • Vieira F, Nascimento T. 2017. Resistência a fármacos antifúngicos por Candida e abordagem terapêutica. Rev Port Farmacoter. 9:161–168.
  • Walsh CC, McIntosh MP, Peleg AY, Kirkpatrick CM, Bergen PJ. 2015. In vitro pharmacodynamics of fosfomycin against clinical isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Antimicrob Chemother. 70:3042–3050.
  • Walters MC, Roe F, Bugnicourt A, Franklin MJ, Stewart PS. 2003. Contributions of antibiotic penetration, oxygen limitation, and low metabolic activity to tolerance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms to ciprofloxacin and tobramycin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 47:317–323.
  • Wang Z, Lin Z, Bai B, Xu G, Li P, Yu Z, Deng Q, Shang Y, Zheng J. 2020. Eravacycline susceptibility was impacted by genetic mutation of 30S ribosome subunits, and branched-chain amino acid transport system II carrier protein, Na/Pi cotransporter family protein in Staphylococcus aureus. BMC Microbiol. 20:189.
  • Weigel LM, Donlan RM, Shin DH, Jensen B, Clark NC, McDougal LK, Zhu W, Musser KA, Thompson J, Kohlerschmidt D, et al. 2007. High-level vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates associated with a polymicrobial biofilm. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 51:231–238.
  • Weiner LM, Webb AK, Limbago B, Dudeck MA, Patel J, Kallen AJ, Edwards JR, Sievert DM. 2016. Antimicrobial-resistant pathogens associated with healthcare-associated infections: summary of data reported to the National Healthcare Safety Network at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011-2014. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 37:1288–1301.
  • WHO. 2017. Global Priority List of Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria to Guide Research, Discovery, and Development of New Antibiotics. [accessed 2020 May 12]. https://www.who.int/medicines/publications/WHO-PPL-ShortSummary25Feb-ETNMWHO.pdf
  • Williamson KS, Richards LA, Perez-Osorio AC, Pitts B, McInnerney K, Stewart PS, Franklin MJ. 2012. Heterogeneity in Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms includes expression of ribosome hibernation factors in the antibiotic-tolerant subpopulation and hypoxia-induced stress response in the metabolically active population. J Bacteriol. 194:2062–2073.
  • Wolcott R, Costerton JW, Raoult D, Cutler SJ. 2013. The polymicrobial nature of biofilm infection. Clin Microbiol Infect. 19:107–112.
  • Wortham BW, Oliveira MA, Patel CN. 2007. Polyamines in bacteria: pleiotropic effects yet specific mechanisms. Adv Exp Med Biol. 603:106–115.
  • Wu ML, Tan J, Dick T. 2015. Eagle effect in nonreplicating persister mycobacteria. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 59:7786–7789.
  • Xu KD, Stewart PS, Xia F, Huang CT, McFeters GA. 1998. Spatial physiological heterogeneity in Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm is determined by oxygen availability. Appl Environ Microbiol. 64:4035–4039.
  • Xu Y, Zheng X, Zeng W, Chen T, Liao W, Qian J, Lin J, Zhou C, Tian X, Cao J, et al. 2020. Mechanisms of heteroresistance and resistance to Imipenem in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. IDR. 13:1419–1428.
  • Yan J, Bassler BL. 2019. Surviving as a community: antibiotic tolerance and persistence in bacterial biofilms. Cell Host Microbe. 26:15–21.
  • Zhang M, Wang H, Tracey KJ. 2000. Regulation of macrophage activation and inflammation by spermine: a new chapter in an old story. Crit Care Med. 28:N60–N66.
  • Zhang W, Aurosree B, Gopalakrishnan B, Balada-Llasat JM, Pancholi V, Pancholi P. 2017. The role of LpxA/C/D and pmrA/B gene systems in colistin-resistant clinical strains of Acinetobacter baumannii. Front Lab Med. 1:86–91.
  • Zhang F, Bai B, Xu GJ, Lin ZW, Li GQ, Chen Z, Cheng H, Sun X, Wang HY, Chen YW, et al. 2018. Eravacycline activity against clinical S. aureus isolates from China: in vitro activity, MLST profiles and heteroresistance. BMC Microbiol. 18:211.
  • Zheng JX, Lin ZW, Sun X, Lin WH, Chen Z, Wu Y, Qi GB, Deng QW, Qu D, Yu ZJ, et al. 2018. Overexpression of OqxAB and MacAB efflux pumps contributes to eravacycline resistance and heteroresistance in clinical isolates of Klebsiella pneumoniae. Emerg Microbes Infect. 7:139.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.