417
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Articles

What is the elephant in the room when considering new therapies for fungal diseases?

ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon
Pages 275-289 | Received 30 Oct 2020, Accepted 08 Jan 2021, Published online: 29 Jan 2021

References

  • Abzug MJ, Walsh TJ. 2004. Interferon-gamma and colony-stimulating factors as adjuvant therapy for refractory fungal infections in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 23(8):769–773.
  • Ada G. 1991. Vaccine development. Real and imagined dangers. Nature. 349(6308):369.
  • Adenis AA, Valdes A, Cropet C, McCotter OZ, Derado G, Couppie P, Chiller T, Nacher M. 2018. Burden of HIV-associated histoplasmosis compared with tuberculosis in Latin America: a modelling study. Lancet Infect Dis. 18(10):1150–1159.
  • Ahmad SR, Singer SJ, Leissa BG. 2001. Congestive heart failure associated with itraconazole. Lancet. 357(9270):1766–1767.
  • Alqarihi A, Singh S, Edwards JE, Ibrahim AS, Uppuluri P. 2019. NDV-3A vaccination prevents C. albicans colonization of jugular vein catheters in mice. Sci Rep. 9(1):6194.
  • Anderson M, Schulze K, Cassini A, Plachouras D, Mossialos E. 2019. A governance framework for development and assessment of national action plans on antimicrobial resistance. Lancet Infect Dis. 19(11):e371–e384.
  • Antachopoulos C, Katragkou A, Roilides E. 2012. Immunotherapy against invasive mold infections. Immunotherapy. 4(1):107–120.
  • Arendrup MC, Perlin DS. 2014. Echinocandin resistance: an emerging clinical problem? Curr Opin Infect Dis. 27(6):484–492.
  • Aykut B, Pushalkar S, Chen R, Li Q, Abengozar R, Kim JI, Shadaloey SA, Wu D, Preiss P, Verma N, et al. 2019. The fungal mycobiome promotes pancreatic oncogenesis via activation of MBL. Nature. 574(7777):264–267.
  • Bar-On YM, Phillips R, Milo R. 2018. The biomass distribution on Earth. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 115(25):6506–6511.
  • Bebber DP. 2019. Climate change effects on Black Sigatoka disease of banana. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 374(1775):20180269.
  • Bernardo SM, Allen CP, Waller A, Young SM, Oprea T, Sklar LA, Lee SA. 2014. An automated high-throughput cell-based multiplexed flow cytometry assay to identify novel compounds to target Candida albicans virulence-related proteins. PLoS One. 9(10):e110354.
  • Bettelli E, Carrier Y, Gao W, Korn T, Strom TB, Oukka M, Weiner HL, Kuchroo VK. 2006. Reciprocal developmental pathways for the generation of pathogenic effector TH17 and regulatory T cells. Nature. 441(7090):235–238.
  • Blankenship JR, Steinbach WJ, Perfect JR, Heitman J. 2003. Teaching old drugs new tricks: reincarnating immunosuppressants as antifungal drugs. Curr Opin Investig Drugs. 4(2):192–199.
  • Bongomin F, Gago S, Oladele R, Denning D. 2017. Global and multi-national prevalence of fungal diseases-estimate precision. JoF. 3(4):57.
  • Borges SRC, Sperandio da Silva GM, da Costa Chambela M, de Oliveira Rd-VC, Braga Costa RL, Wanke B, do Valle ACF. 2014. Itraconazole vs. trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole: a comparative cohort study of 200 patients with paracoccidioidomycosis. Med Mycol. 52(3):303–310.
  • Boulware DR, Nalintya E, Rajasingham R, Kirumira P, Naluyima R, Turya F, Namanda S, Rutakingirwa MK, Skipper CP, Nikweri Y, et al. 2020. Adjunctive sertraline for asymptomatic cryptococcal antigenemia: a randomized clinical trial. Med Mycol. 58(8):1037–1043.
  • Brown EM, McTaggart LR, Dunn D, Pszczolko E, Tsui KG, Morris SK, Stephens D, Kus JV, Richardson SE. 2018. Epidemiology and geographic distribution of blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, and coccidioidomycosis, Ontario, Canada, 1990-2015. Emerg Infect Dis. 24(7):1257–1266.
  • Bugli F, Cacaci M, Martini C, Torelli R, Posteraro B, Sanguinetti M, Sterbini FP. 2013. Human monoclonal antibody-based therapy in the treatment of invasive candidiasis. Clin Dev Immunol. 2013:403121.
  • Buil J, Rijs A, Meis J, Birch M, Law D, Melchers W, Verweij P. 2017. In vitro activity of the novel antifungal compound F901318 against difficult-to-treat Aspergillus isolates. J Antimicrob Chemother. 72(9):2548–2552.
  • Buil JB, Hare RK, Zwaan BJ, Arendrup MC, Melchers WJG, Verweij PE. 2019. The fading boundaries between patient and environmental routes of triazole resistance selection in Aspergillus fumigatus. PLoS Pathog. 15(8):e1007858.
  • Butts A, DiDone L, Koselny K, Baxter BK, Chabrier-Rosello Y, Wellington M, Krysan DJ. 2013. A repurposing approach identifies off-patent drugs with fungicidal cryptococcal activity, a common structural chemotype, and pharmacological properties relevant to the treatment of Cryptococcosis. Eukaryot Cell. 12(2):278–287.
  • Butts A, Krysan DJ. 2012. Antifungal drug discovery: something old and something new. PLoS Pathog. 8(9):e1002870–11.
  • Campoy S, Adrio JL. 2017. Antifungals. Biochem Pharmacol. 133:86–96.
  • Cannon GJ, Swanson JA. 1992. The macrophage capacity for phagocytosis. J Cell Sci. 101(4):907–913.
  • Casadevall A, Kontoyiannis DP, Robert V. 2019. On the emergence of Candida auris: climate change, azoles, swamps, and birds. MBio. 10(4):e01397–19.
  • Casadevall A, Pirofski LA. 2012. Immunoglobulins in defense, pathogenesis, and therapy of fungal diseases. Cell Host Microbe. 11(5):447–456.
  • Cavalcante Rd-S, Sylvestre TF, Levorato AD, de Carvalho LR, Mendes RP. 2014. Comparison between itraconazole and cotrimoxazole in the treatment of paracoccidiodomycosis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 8(4):e2793.
  • Chadha S, Kale SP. 2015. Simple fluorescence-based high throughput cell viability assay for filamentous fungi. Lett Appl Microbiol. 61(3):238–244.
  • Cleary JD, Stover KR. 2015. Antifungal-associated drug-induced cardiac disease. Clin Infect Dis. 61(6):S662–S668.
  • Cong L, Liao Y, Yang S, Yang R. 2016. In vitro antifungal activity of sertraline and synergistic effects in combination with antifungal drugs against planktonic forms and biofilms of clinical Trichosporon asahii isolates. PLoS One. 11(12):e0167903.
  • Couzin-Frankel J. 2016. Worries, confusion after cancer trial deaths. Science. 354(6317):1211.
  • Dale J, James A, Paul J-Y, Khanna H, Smith M, Peraza-Echeverria S, Garcia-Bastidas F, Kema G, Waterhouse P, Mengersen K, et al. 2017. Transgenic cavendish bananas with resistance to Fusarium wilt tropical race 4. Nat Commun. 8(1):1496.
  • Dar OA, Hasan R, Schlundt J, Harbarth S, Caleo G, Dar FK, Littmann J, Rweyemamu M, Buckley EJ, Shahid M, et al. 2016. Exploring the evidence base for national and regional policy interventions to combat resistance. Lancet. 387(10015):285–295.
  • Dartevelle P, Ehlinger C, Zaet A, Boehler C, Rabineau M, Westermann B, Strub J-M, Cianferani S, Haïkel Y, Metz-Boutigue M-H, et al. 2018. D-Cateslytin: a new antifungal agent for the treatment of oral Candida albicans associated infections. Sci Rep. 8(1):9235.
  • De Oliveira HC, Monteiro MC, Rossi SA, Pemán J, Ruiz-Gaitán A, Mendes-Giannini MJS, Mellado E, Zaragoza O. 2019. Identification of off-patent compounds that present antifungal activity against the emerging fungal pathogen Candida auris. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 9:10–83.
  • Delsing CE, Gresnigt MS, Leentjens J, Preijers F, Frager FA, Kox M, Monneret G, Venet F, Bleeker-Rovers CP, van de Veerdonk FL, et al. 2014. Interferon-gamma as adjunctive immunotherapy for invasive fungal infections: a case series. BMC Infect Dis. 14:166.
  • Dennehy KM, Ferwerda G, Faro-Trindade I, Pyz E, Willment JA, Taylor PR, Kerrigan A, Tsoni SV, Gordon S, Meyer-Wentrup F, et al. 2008. Syk kinase is required for collaborative cytokine production induced through Dectin-1 and Toll-like receptors. Eur J Immunol. 38(2):500–506.
  • Denning DW. 2017. Calling upon all public health mycologists: to accompany the country burden papers from 14 countries. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 36(6):923–924.
  • Denning DW, Bromley MJ. 2015. Infectious disease. How to bolster the antifungal pipeline. Science. 347(6229):1414–1416.
  • Di Mambro T, Guerriero I, Aurisicchio L, Magnani M, Marra E. 2019. The yin and yang of current antifungal therapeutic strategies: how can we harness our natural defenses? Front Pharmacol. 10:80.
  • Didone L, Scrimale T, Baxter BK, Krysan DJ. 2010. A high-throughput assay of yeast cell lysis for drug discovery and genetic analysis. Nat Protoc. 5(6):1107–1114.
  • Edwards JE, Jr, Schwartz MM, Schmidt CS, Sobel JD, Nyirjesy P, Schodel F, Marchus E, Lizakowski M, DeMontigny EA, Hoeg J, et al. 2018. A fungal immunotherapeutic vaccine (NDV-3A) for treatment of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis-a phase 2 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis. 66(12):1928–1936.
  • Erwig LP, Gow NAR. 2016. Interactions of fungal pathogens with phagocytes. Nat Rev Microbiol. 14(3):163–176.
  • Estrada C, Desai AG, Chirch LM, Suh H, Seidman R, Darras F, Nord EP. 2012. Invasive aspergillosis in a renal transplant recipient successfully treated with interferon-gamma. Case Rep Transplant. 2012:493758.
  • Fedorova O, Jagdmann GE, Adams RL, Yuan L, Van Zandt MC, Pyle AM. 2018. Small molecules that target group II introns are potent antifungal agents. Nat Chem Biol. 14(12):1073–1078.
  • Fernandes CM, Dasilva D, Haranahalli K, McCarthy JB, Mallamo J, Ojima I, Del Poeta M. 2021. The future of antifungal drug therapy: novel compounds and targets. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 65(2):e01719–20.
  • Fisher MC, Henk DA, Briggs CJ, Brownstein JS, Madoff LC, McCraw SL, Gurr SJ. 2012. Emerging fungal threats to animal, plant and ecosystem health. Nature. 484(7393):186–194.
  • Gaviria JM, van Burik JA, Dale DC, Root RK, Liles WC. 1999. Comparison of interferon-gamma, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor for priming leukocyte-mediated hyphal damage of opportunistic fungal pathogens. J Infect Dis. 179(4):1038–1041.
  • Ghannoum MA, Rice LB. 1999. Antifungal agents: mode of action, mechanisms of resistance, and correlation of these mechanisms with bacterial resistance. Clin Microbiol Rev. 12(4):501–517.
  • Ghini R, Bettiol W, Hamada E. 2011. Diseases in tropical and plantation crops as affected by climate changes: current knowledge and perspectives. Plant Pathol. 60(1):122–132.
  • Góralska K, Blaszkowska J, Dzikowiec M. 2018. Neuroinfections caused by fungi. Infection. 46(4):443–459.
  • Gupta AK, Tomas E. 2003. New antifungal agents. Dermatol Clin. 21(3):565–576.
  • Gupta AK, Versteeg SG. 2016. Tavaborole - a treatment for onychomycosis of the toenails. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 9(9):1145–1152.
  • Hawksworth DL. 1991. The fungal dimension of biodiversity: magnitude, significance, and conservation. Mycol Res. 95(6):641–655.
  • Hof H. 2008. Is there a serious risk of resistance development to azoles among fungi due to the widespread use and long-term application of azole antifungals in medicine? Drug Resist Updat. 11(1–2):25–31.
  • Hooijmans CR, Rovers MM, de Vries RB, Leenaars M, Ritskes-Hoitinga M, Langendam MW. 2014. SYRCLE’s risk of bias tool for animal studies. BMC Med Res Methodol. 14:43.
  • Hsieh CS, Macatonia SE, Tripp CS, Wolf SF, O’Garra A, Murphy KM. 1993. Development of TH1 CD4+ T cells through IL-12 produced by Listeria-induced macrophages. Science. 260(5107):547–549.
  • Iannitti RG, Carvalho A, Romani L. 2012. From memory to antifungal vaccine design. Trends Immunol. 33(9):467–474.
  • Ibrahim AS, Luo G, Gebremariam T, Lee H, Schmidt CS, Hennessey JP, Jr, French SW, Yeaman MR, Filler SG, Edwards JE, Jr. 2013. NDV-3 protects mice from vulvovaginal candidiasis through T- and B-cell immune response. Vaccine. 31(47):5549–5556.
  • Joffe LS, Schneider R, Lopes W, Azevedo R, Staats CC, Kmetzsch L, Schrank A, Del Poeta M, Vainstein MH, Rodrigues ML. 2017. The anti-helminthic compound mebendazole has multiple antifungal effects against Cryptococcus neoformans. Front Microbiol. 8:535.
  • Joly S, Ma N, Sadler JJ, Soll DR, Cassel SL, Sutterwala FS. 2009. Cutting edge: Candida albicans hyphae formation triggers activation of the Nlrp3 inflammasome. J Immunol. 183(6):3578–3581.
  • Karwa R, Wargo KA. 2009. Efungumab: a novel agent in the treatment of invasive candidiasis. Ann Pharmacother. 43(11):1818–1823.
  • Kerr KW, Henry TC, Miller KL. 2018. Is the priority review voucher program stimulating new drug development for tropical diseases? PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 12(8):e0006695.
  • Kullberg B-J, van de Veerdonk F, Netea MG. 2014. Immunotherapy: a potential adjunctive treatment for fungal infection. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 27(6):511–516.
  • Kumaresan PR, Manuri PR, Albert ND, Maiti S, Singh H, Mi T, Roszik J, Rabinovich B, Olivares S, Krishnamurthy J, et al. 2014. Bioengineering T cells to target carbohydrate to treat opportunistic fungal infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 111(29):10660–10665.
  • Larsen RA, Pappas PG, Perfect J, Aberg JA, Casadevall A, Cloud GA, James R, Filler S, Dismukes WE. 2005. Phase I evaluation of the safety and pharmacokinetics of murine-derived anticryptococcal antibody 18B7 in subjects with treated cryptococcal meningitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 49(3):952–958.
  • Larwood DJ. 2020. Nikkomycin Z-ready to meet the promise? JoF. 6(4):261.
  • Levings MK, Roncarolo MG. 2005. Phenotypic and functional differences between human CD4 + CD25+ and type 1 regulatory T cells. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 293:303–326.
  • Levorato AD, Moris DV, Cavalcante R de S, Sylvestre TF, de Azevedo PZ, de Carvalho LR, Mendes RP. 2018. Evaluation of the hepatobiliary system in patients with paracoccidioidomycosis treated with cotrimoxazole or itraconazole. Med Mycol. 56(5):531–540.
  • Liles WC, Huang JE, van Burik JA, Bowden RA, Dale DC. 1997. Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor administered in vivo augments neutrophil-mediated activity against opportunistic fungal pathogens. J Infect Dis. 175(4):1012–1015.
  • Liu M, Clemons KV, Bigos M, Medovarska I, Brummer E, Stevens DA. 2011. Immune responses induced by heat killed Saccharomyces cerevisiae: a vaccine against fungal infection. Vaccine. 29(9):1745–1753.
  • Liu W, Yu W, Chan K, Yang C, Wauters J, Verweij PE. 2019. Aspergillosis related to severe influenza: a worldwide phenomenon? Clin Respir J. 13(8):540–542.
  • Lockhart SR, Etienne KA, Vallabhaneni S, Farooqi J, Chowdhary A, Govender NP, Colombo AL, Calvo B, Cuomo CA, Desjardins CA, et al. 2017. Simultaneous emergence of multidrug-resistant Candida auris on 3 continents confirmed by whole-genome sequencing and epidemiological analyses. Clin Infect Dis. 64(2):134–140.
  • Lu RM, Hwang YH, Liu IJ, Lee CC, Tsai HZ, Li HJ, Wu HC. 2020. Development of therapeutic antibodies for the treatment of diseases. J Biomed Sci. 27(1):1.
  • Mahlapuu M, Håkansson J, Ringstad L, Björn C. 2016. Antimicrobial peptides: an emerging category of therapeutic agents. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 6:194.
  • Mailer RKW, Joly AL, Liu S, Elias S, Tegner J, Andersson J. 2015. IL-1β promotes Th17 differentiation by inducing alternative splicing of FOXP3. Sci Rep. 5:14674.
  • Matthews RC, Rigg G, Hodgetts S, Carter T, Chapman C, Gregory C, Illidge C, Burnie J. 2003. Preclinical assessment of the efficacy of mycograb, a human recombinant antibody against fungal HSP90. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 47(7):2208–2216.
  • Miró-Canturri A, Ayerbe-Algaba R, Smani Y. 2019. Drug repurposing for the treatment of bacterial and fungal infections. Front Microbiol. 10:41.
  • Moragues MD, Omaetxebarria MJ, Elguezabal N, Sevilla MJ, Conti S, Polonelli L, Pontón J. 2003. A monoclonal antibody directed against a Candida albicans cell wall mannoprotein exerts three anti-C. albicans activities. Infect Immun. 71(9):5273–5279.
  • Nami S, Mohammadi R, Vakili M, Khezripour K, Mirzaei H, Morovati H. 2019. Fungal vaccines, mechanism of actions and immunology: a comprehensive review. Biomed Pharmacother. 109:333–344.
  • Netea MG, Gow NA, Munro CA, Bates S, Collins C, Ferwerda G, Hobson RP, Bertram G, Hughes HB, Jansen T, Jacobs L, et al. 2006. Immune sensing of Candida albicans requires cooperative recognition of mannans and glucans by lectin and Toll-like receptors. J Clin Invest. 116(6):1642–1650.
  • Neumann-Haefelin C, Thimme R. 2013. Adaptive immune responses in hepatitis C virus infection. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 369:243–262.
  • Oliver JD, Sibley GEM, Beckmann N, Dobb KS, Slater MJ, McEntee L, Du Pré S, Livermore J, Bromley MJ, Wiederhold NP, et al. 2016. F901318 represents a novel class of antifungal drug that inhibits dihydroorotate dehydrogenase. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 113(45):12809–12814.
  • Ordonez N, Seidl MF, Waalwijk C, Drenth A, Kilian A, Thomma BPHJ, Ploetz RC, Kema GHJ. 2015. Worse comes to worst: bananas and Panama disease-when plant and pathogen clones meet. PLoS Pathog. 11(11):e1005197.
  • Pappas PG. 2014. Antifungal clinical trials and guidelines: what we know and do not know. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 4(11):a019745.
  • Paul V, Rawal H. 2017. Cardiotoxicity with Itraconazole. BMJ Case Rep. 2017:219376.
  • Perfect JR, Pfaller MA, Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Kontoyiannis DP. 2011. Invasive mycoses: evolving challenges and opportunities in antifungal therapy (multimedia activity). Am J Med. 124(10):S2–S3.
  • Perlin DS, Rautemaa-Richardson R, Alastruey-Izquierdo A. 2017. The global problem of antifungal resistance: prevalence, mechanisms, and management. Lancet Infect Dis. 17(12):e383–e392.
  • Perruccio K, Tosti A, Burchielli E, Topini F, Ruggeri L, Carotti A, Capanni M, Urbani E, Mancusi A, Aversa F, et al. 2005. Transferring functional immune responses to pathogens after haploidentical hematopoietic transplantation. Blood. 106(13):4397–4406.
  • Pierce CG, Uppuluri P, Tristan AR, Wormley FL, Mowat E, Ramage G, Lopez-Ribot JL. 2008. A simple and reproducible 96-well plate-based method for the formation of fungal biofilms and its application to antifungal susceptibility testing. Nat Protoc. 3(9):1494–1500.
  • Prasad V, Ho N. 2014. Why do we continue to adopt medical practices based on pathophysiology alone when we should be insisting on clinical trials? J Clin Epidemiol. 67(4):361–363.
  • Queiroz-Telles F, Fahal AH, Falci DR, Caceres DH, Chiller T, Pasqualotto AC. 2017. Neglected endemic mycoses. Lancet Infect Dis. 17(11):e367–e377.
  • Rabjohns JLA, Park Y, Dehdashti J, Henderson C, Zelazny A, Metallo SJ, Zheng W, Williamson PR. 2014. A high-throughput screening assay for fungicidal compounds against Cryptococcus neoformans. J Biomol Screen. 19(2):270–277.
  • Rhein J, Huppler Hullsiek K, Tugume L, Nuwagira E, Mpoza E, Evans EE, Kiggundu R, Pastick KA, Ssebambulidde K, Akampurira A, et al. 2019. Adjunctive sertraline for HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis: a randomised, placebo-controlled, double-blind phase 3 trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 19(8):843–851.
  • Rivera J, Zaragoza O, Casadevall A. 2005. Antibody-mediated protection against Cryptococcus neoformans pulmonary infection is dependent on B cells. Infect Immun. 73(2):1141–1150.
  • Romani L. 2011. Immunity to fungal infections. Nat Rev Immunol. 11(4):275–288.
  • Roemer T, Krysan DJ. 2014. Antifungal drug development: challenges, unmet clinical needs, and new approaches. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 4(5):a019703.
  • Rushton J, Ferreira JP, Stärk KDC. 2014. Antimicrobial resistance: the use of antimicrobials in the livestock sector. Paris (France): OECD; p. 68.
  • Rybak JM, Ge W, Wiederhold NP, Parker JE, Kelly SL, Rogers PD, Fortwendel JR. 2019. Mutations in hmg1, challenging the paradigm of clinical triazole resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus. MBio. 10(2):e00437-19.
  • Sanguinetti M, Posteraro B, Beigelman-Aubry C, Lamoth F, Dunet V, Slavin M, Richardson MD. 2019. Diagnosis and treatment of invasive fungal infections: looking ahead. J Antimicrob Chemother. 74(2):ii27–ii37.
  • Santos LA, Grisolia JC, Malaquias LCC, Paula FBA, Dias ALT, Burger E. 2020. Medication association and immunomodulation: an approach in fungal diseases and in particular in the treatment of paracoccidioidomycosis. Acta Trop. 206:105412.
  • Scheele BC, Pasmans F, Skerratt LF, Berger L, Martel A, Beukema W, Acevedo AA, Burrowes PA, Carvalho T, Catenazzi A, et al. 2019. Amphibian fungal panzootic causes catastrophic and ongoing loss of biodiversity. Science. 363(6434):1459–1463.
  • Seif M, Einsele H, Löffler J. 2019. CAR T cells beyond cancer: hope for immunomodulatory therapy of infectious diseases. Front Immunol. 10:2711.
  • Shapiro S, Beenhouwer DO, Feldmesser M, Taborda C, Carroll MC, Casadevall A, Scharff MD. 2002. Immunoglobulin G monoclonal antibodies to Cryptococcus neoformans protect mice deficient in complement component C3. Infect Immun. 70(5):2598–2604.
  • Shaw KJ, Schell WA, Covel J, Duboc G, Giamberardino C, Kapoor M, Moloney M, Soltow QA, Tenor JL, Toffaletti DL, et al. 2018. In vitro and in vivo evaluation of APX001A/APX001 and other Gwt1 inhibitors against Cryptococcus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 62(8):e00523–18.
  • Shi L, Albuquerque PC, Lazar-Molnar E, Wang X, Santambrogio L, Gácser A, Nosanchuk JD. 2008. A monoclonal antibody to Histoplasma capsulatum alters the intracellular fate of the fungus in murine macrophages. Eukaryot Cell. 7(7):1109–1117.
  • Shields RK, Nguyen MH, Clancy CJ. 2015. Clinical perspectives on echinocandin resistance among Candida species. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 28:514–522.
  • Singh S, Uppuluri P, Mamouei Z, Alqarihi A, Elhassan H, French S, Lockhart SR, Chiller T, Edwards JE, Ibrahim AS. 2019. The NDV-3A vaccine protects mice from multidrug resistant Candida auris infection. PLoS Pathog. 15(8):e1007460.
  • Slørdal L, Spigset O. 2006. Heart failure induced by non-cardiac drugs. Drug Saf. 29(7):567–586.
  • Snelders E, Camps SMT, Karawajczyk A, Schaftenaar G, Kema GHJ, van der Lee HA, Klaassen CH, Melchers WJG, Verweij PE. 2012. Triazole fungicides can induce cross-resistance to medical triazoles in Aspergillus fumigatus. PLoS One. 7(3):e31801.
  • Speakman EA, Dambuza IM, Salazar F, Brown GD. 2020. T Cell Antifungal Immunity and the Role of C-Type Lectin Receptors. Trends Immunol. 41(1):61–76.
  • Spitzer M, Griffiths E, Blakely KM, Wildenhain J, Ejim L, Rossi L, De Pascale G, Curak J, Brown E, Tyers M, et al. 2011. Cross-species discovery of syncretic drug combinations that potentiate the antifungal fluconazole. Mol Syst Biol. 7(1):499.
  • Stevens DA, Clemons KV, Liu A. 2011. Developing a vaccine against aspergillosis. Med Mycol. 49(S1):S170–S176.
  • Stokstad E. 2019. Devastating banana disease may have reached Latin America, could drive up global prices. Science. DOI:10.1126/science.aay7681.
  • Subramaniam K, Metzger B, Hanau LH, Guh A, Rucker L, Badri S, Pirofski LA. 2009. IgM(+) memory B cell expression predicts HIV-associated cryptococcosis status. J Infect Dis. 200(2):244–251.
  • Szymański P, Markowicz M, Mikiciuk-Olasik E. 2012. Adaptation of high-throughput screening in drug discovery-toxicological screening tests. Int J Mol Sci. 13(1):427–452.
  • Talhinhas P, Batista D, Diniz I, Vieira A, Silva DN, Loureiro A, Tavares S, Pereira AP, Azinheira HG, Guerra-Guimarães L, et al. 2017. The coffee leaf rust pathogen Hemileia vastatrix: one and a half centuries around the tropics. Mol Plant Pathol. 18(8):1039–1051.
  • Tang KL, Caffrey NP, Nóbrega DB, Cork SC, Ronksley PE, Barkema HW, Polachek AJ, Ganshorn H, Sharma N, Kellner JD, et al. 2017. Restricting the use of antibiotics in food-producing animals and its associations with antibiotic resistance in food-producing animals and human beings: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Planet Heal. 1(8):e316–e327.
  • Thanner S, Drissner D, Walsh F. 2016. Antimicrobial resistance in agriculture. MBio. 7(2):e02227.
  • Thomas MA, He J, Peterson FC, Huppler AR, Volkman BF. 2018. The solution structure of CCL28 reveals structural lability that does not constrain antifungal activity. J Mol Biol. 430(18):3266–3282.
  • Tibayrenc M, Gladieux P, Byrnes EJ, Aguileta G, Fisher M, Billmyre RB, Heitman J, Giraud T. 2017. Epidemiology and evolution of fungal pathogens in plants and animals. In Tibayrenc M, editor. Genetics and evolution of infectious diseases. Amsterdam (The Nethwerlands): Elsevier; p. 59–132.
  • Treviño-Rangel Rd-J, Villanueva-Lozano H, Hernández-Rodríguez P, Martínez-Reséndez MF, García-Juárez J, Rodríguez-Rocha H, González GM. 2016. Activity of sertraline against Cryptococcus neoformans: in vitro and in vivo assays. Med Mycol. 54(3):280–286.
  • Tudela JLR, Denning DW. 2017. Recovery from serious fungal infections should be realisable for everyone. Lancet Infect Dis. 17(11):1111–1113.
  • Vallabhaneni S, Chiller TM. 2016. Fungal infections and new biologic therapies. Curr Rheumatol Rep. 18(5):29.
  • van der Graaf CA, Netea MG, Verschueren I, van der Meer JW, Kullberg BJ. 2005. Differential cytokine production and Toll-like receptor signaling pathways by Candida albicans blastoconidia and hyphae. Infect Immun. 73(11):7458–7464.
  • Verweij PE, Snelders E, Kema GHJ, Mellado E, Melchers WJG. 2009. Azole resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus: a side-effect of environmental fungicide use? Lancet Infect Dis. 9(12):789–795.
  • Vos T, Flaxman AD, Naghavi M, Lozano R, Michaud C, Ezzati M, Shibuya K, Salomon JA, Abdalla S, Aboyans V, et al. 2012. Years lived with disability (YLDs) for 1160 sequelae of 289 diseases and injuries 1990-2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet. 380(9859):2163–2196.
  • Wagener J, Malireddi RK, Lenardon MD, Köberle M, Vautier S, MacCallum DM, Biedermann T, Schaller M, Netea MG, Kanneganti TD, et al. 2014. Fungal chitin dampens inflammation through IL-10 induction mediated by NOD2 and TLR9 activation. PLoS Pathog. 10(4):e1004050.
  • Wall G, Chaturvedi AK, Wormley FL, Wiederhold NP, Patterson HP, Patterson TF, Lopez-Ribot JL. 2018. Screening a repurposing library for inhibitors of multidrug-resistant Candida auris identifies ebselen as a repositionable candidate for antifungal drug development. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 62(10):e01084–18.
  • WHO. 2016. WHO Executive Board recommends mycetoma resolution to World Health Assembly. Geneva (Switzerland): World health organization.
  • Winkelstein JA, Marino MC, Lederman HM, Jones SM, Sullivan K, Burks AW, Conley ME, Cunningham-Rundles C, Ochs HD. 2006. X-linked agammaglobulinemia: report on a United States registry of 201 patients. Medicine. 85(4):193–202.
  • Wong CH, Siah KW, Lo AW. 2019. Estimation of clinical trial success rates and related parameters. Biostatistics. 20(2):273–286.
  • Xander P, Vigna AF, Feitosa LDS, Pugliese L, Bailão AM, Soares C. M d A, Mortara RA, Mariano M, Lopes JD. 2007. A surface 75-kDa protein with acid phosphatase activity recognized by monoclonal antibodies that inhibit Paracoccidioides brasiliensis growth. Microbes Infect. 9(12–13):1484–1492.
  • Yamashita K, Miyazaki T, Fukuda Y, Mitsuyama J, Saijo T, Shimamura S, Yamamoto K, Imamura Y, Izumikawa K, Yanagihara K, et al. 2019. The novel arylamidine T-2307 selectively disrupts yeast mitochondrial function by inhibiting respiratory chain complexes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 63(8):e00374-19.
  • Zhai B, Zhou H, Yang L, Zhang J, Jung K, Giam CZ, Xiang X, Lin X. 2010. Polymyxin B, in combination with fluconazole, exerts a potent fungicidal effect. J Antimicrob Chemother. 65(5):931–938.
  • Zhang J, van den Heuvel J, Debets AJM, Verweij PE, Melchers WJG, Zwaan BJ, Schoustra SE. 2017. Evolution of cross-resistance to medical triazoles in Aspergillus fumigatus through selection pressure of environmental fungicides. Proc R Soc B. 284(1863):20170635.
  • Zhang L, Yan K, Zhang Y, Huang R, Bian J, Zheng C, Sun H, Chen Z, Sun N, An R, et al. 2007. High-throughput synergy screening identifies microbial metabolites as combination agents for the treatment of fungal infections. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 104(11):4606–4611.
  • Zijlstra EE, van de Sande WWJ, Welsh O, Mahgoub ES, Heikh Goodfellow M, Fahal AH. 2016. Mycetoma: a unique neglected tropical disease. Lancet Infect Dis. 16(1):100–112.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.