607
Views
8
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Articles

Sneathia: an emerging pathogen in female reproductive disease and adverse perinatal outcomes

ORCID Icon, , ORCID Icon, , , & ORCID Icon show all
Pages 517-542 | Received 26 Oct 2020, Accepted 13 Mar 2021, Published online: 06 Apr 2021

References

  • Alekshun MN, Levy SB. 2007. Molecular mechanisms of antibacterial multidrug resistance. Cell. 128(6):1037–1050.
  • Anahtar MN, Byrne EH, Doherty KE, Bowman BA, Yamamoto HS, Soumillon M, Padavattan N, Ismail N, Moodley A, Sabatini ME, et al. 2015. Cervicovaginal bacteria are a major modulator of host inflammatory responses in the female genital tract. Immunity. 42(5):965–976.
  • Audirac-Chalifour A, Torres-Poveda K, Bahena-Román M, Téllez-Sosa J, Martínez-Barnetche J, Cortina-Ceballos B, López-Estrada G, Delgado-Romero K, Burguete-García AI, Cantú D, et al. 2016. Cervical microbiome and cytokine profile at various stages of cervical cancer: a pilot study. PLoS One. 11(4):e0153274.
  • Aujoulat F, Roudière L, Picaud J-C, Jacquot A, Filleron A, Neveu D, Baum T-P, Marchandin H, Jumas-Bilak E. 2014. Temporal dynamics of the very premature infant gut dominant microbiota. BMC Microbiol. 14:325.
  • Bachy B, Bémer P, Tortellier L, Giraudeau C, Reynaud A, Corvec S. 2011. Septic arthritis due to a Sneathia species most closely related to Sneathia sanguinegens. J Med Microbiol. 60(11):1693–1696.
  • Balkus JE, Srinivasan S, Anzala O, Kimani J, Andac C, Schwebke J, Fredricks DN, McClelland RS. 2017. Impact of periodic presumptive treatment for bacterial vaginosis on the vaginal microbiome among women participating in the preventing vaginal infections trial. J Infect Dis. 215(5):723–731.
  • Bennett KW, Eley A. 1993. Fusobacteria: new taxonomy and related diseases. J Med Microbiol. 39(4):246–254.
  • Berman HL, McLaren MR, Callahan BJ. 2020. Understanding and interpreting community sequencing measurements of the vaginal microbiome. BJOG. 127(2):139–146.
  • Blencowe H, Lee ACC, Cousens S, Bahalim A, Narwal R, Zhong N, Chou D, Say L, Modi N, Katz J, et al. 2013. Preterm birth-associated neurodevelopmental impairment estimates at regional and global levels for 2010. Pediatr Res. 74(S1):17–34.
  • Boennelycke M, Christensen JJ, Arpi M, Krause S. 2007. Leptotrichia amnionii found in septic abortion in Denmark. Scand J Infect Dis. 39(4):382–383.
  • Bohlin J, Eldholm V, Pettersson JHO, Brynildsrud O, Snipen L. 2017. The nucleotide composition of microbial genomes indicates differential patterns of selection on core and accessory genomes. BMC Genomics. 18(1):151.
  • Borgogna JC, Shardell MD, Santori EK, Nelson TM, Rath JM, Glover ED, Ravel J, Gravitt PE, Yeoman CJ, Brotman RM, et al. 2020. The vaginal metabolome and microbiota of cervical HPV-positive and HPV-negative women: a cross-sectional analysis. BJOG. 127(2):182–192.
  • Bradshaw CS, Morton AN, Hocking J, Garland SM, Morris MB, Moss LM, Horvath LB, Kuzevska I, Fairley CK. 2006. High recurrence rates of bacterial vaginosis over the course of 12 months after oral metronidazole therapy and factors associated with recurrence. J Infect Dis. 193(11):1478–1486.
  • Brotman RM, Bradford LL, Conrad M, Gajer P, Ault K, Peralta L, Forney LJ, Carlton JM, Abdo Z, Ravel J, et al. 2012. Association between Trichomonas vaginalis and vaginal bacterial community composition among reproductive-age women. Sex Transm Dis. 39(10):807–812.
  • Brown RG, Marchesi JR, Lee YS, Smith A, Lehne B, Kindinger LM, Terzidou V, Holmes E, Nicholson JK, Bennett PR, et al. 2018. Vaginal dysbiosis increases risk of preterm fetal membrane rupture, neonatal sepsis and is exacerbated by erythromycin. BMC Med. 16(1):9.
  • Burnham P, Gomez-Lopez N, Heyang M, Cheng AP, Lenz JS, Dadhania DM, Lee JR, Suthanthiran M, Romero R, De Vlaminck I, et al. 2020. Separating the signal from the noise in metagenomic cell-free DNA sequencing. Microbiome. 8(1):18.
  • Carlstein C, Soes LM, Jorgen Christensen J. 2016. Aerococcus christensenii as part of severe polymicrobial chorioamnionitis in a pregnant woman. Open Microbiol J. 10:27–31.
  • Casey BM, Cox SM. 1997. Chorioamnionitis and endometritis. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 11(1):203–222.
  • Castro J, Jefferson KK, Cerca N. 2018. Innate immune components affect growth and virulence traits of bacterial-vaginosis-associated and non-bacterial-vaginosis-associated Gardnerella vaginalis strains similarly. Pathog Dis. 76(9):1–7.
  • Chaiyasit N, Romero R, Chaemsaithong P, Docheva N, Bhatti G, Kusanovic JP, Dong Z, Yeo L, Pacora P, Hassan SS, et al. 2017. Clinical chorioamnionitis at term VIII: a rapid MMP-8 test for the identification of intra-amniotic inflammation. J Perinat Med. 45(5):539–550.
  • Chawanpaiboon S, Vogel JP, Moller A-B, Lumbiganon P, Petzold M, Hogan D, Landoulsi S, Jampathong N, Kongwattanakul K, Laopaiboon M, et al. 2019. Global, regional, and national estimates of levels of preterm birth in 2014: a systematic review and modelling analysis. Lancet Glob Health. 7(1):e37–e46.
  • Chen Y, Hong Z, Wang W, Gu L, Gao H, Qiu L, Di W. 2019. Association between the vaginal microbiome and high-risk human papillomavirus infection in pregnant Chinese women. BMC Infect Dis. 19(1):677.
  • Cohen PA, Jhingran A, Oaknin A, Denny L. 2019. Cervical cancer. Lancet. 393(10167):169–182.
  • Collins MD, Hoyles L, Tornqvist E, von Essen R, Falsen E. 2001. Characterization of some strains from human clinical sources which resemble “Leptotrichia sanguinegens”: description of Sneathia sanguinegens sp. nov., gen. nov. Syst Appl Microbiol. 24(3):358–361.
  • Costerton JW, Stewart PS, Greenberg EP. 1999. Bacterial biofilms: a common cause of persistent infections. Science. 284(5418):1318–1322.
  • Cruciani F, Biagi E, Severgnini M, Consolandi C, Calanni F, Donders G, Brigidi P, Vitali B. 2015. Development of a microarray-based tool to characterize vaginal bacterial fluctuations and application to a novel antibiotic treatment for bacterial vaginosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 59(5):2825–2834.
  • De Martino SJ, Mahoudeau I, Brettes JP, Piemont Y, Monteil H, Jaulhac B. 2004. Peripartum bacteremias due to Leptotrichia amnionii and Sneathia sanguinegens, rare causes of fever during and after delivery. J Clin Microbiol. 42(12):5940–5943.
  • Di Paola M, Sani C, Clemente AM, Iossa A, Perissi E, Castronovo G, Tanturli M, Rivero D, Cozzolino F, Cavalieri D, et al. 2017. Characterization of cervico-vaginal microbiota in women developing persistent high-risk Human Papillomavirus infection. Sci Rep. 7(1):10200.
  • Di Quinzio MKW, Oliva K, Holdsworth SJ, Ayhan M, Walker SP, Rice GE, Georgiou HM, Permezel M. 2007. Proteomic analysis and characterisation of human cervico-vaginal fluid proteins. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 47(1):9–15.
  • Di Renzo GC. 2009. The great obstetrical syndromes. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 22(8):633–635.
  • Di Renzo GC, Roura LC, Facchinetti F, Antsaklis A, Breborowicz G, Gratacos E, Husslein P, Lamont R, Mikhailov A, Montenegro N, et al. 2011. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous preterm labor: identification of spontaneous preterm labor, diagnosis of preterm premature rupture of membranes, and preventive tools for preterm birth. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 24(5):659–667.
  • DiGiulio DB, Romero R, Kusanovic JP, Gomez R, Kim CJ, Seok KS, Gotsch F, Mazaki-Tovio S, Vaisbuch E, Sanders K, et al. 2010. Prevalence and diversity of microbes in the amniotic fluid, the fetal inflammatory response, and pregnancy outcome in women with preterm pre-labor rupture of membranes. Am J Reprod Immunol. 64(1):38–57.
  • DiGiulio DB, Gervasi M, Romero R, Mazaki-Tovi S, Vaisbuch E, Kusanovic JP, Seok KS, Gómez R, Mittal P, Gotsch F, et al. 2010. Microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity in preeclampsia as assessed by cultivation and sequence-based methods. J Perinat Med. 38(5):503–513.
  • DiGiulio DB, Gervasi MT, Romero R, Vaisbuch E, Mazaki-Tovi S, Kusanovic JP, Seok KS, Gómez R, Mittal P, Gotsch F, et al. 2010. Microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity in pregnancies with small-for-gestational-age fetuses. J Perinat Med. 38(5):495–502.
  • DiGiulio DB, Romero R, Amogan HP, Kusanovic JP, Bik EM, Gotsch F, Kim CJ, Erez O, Edwin S, Relman DA, et al. 2008. Microbial prevalence, diversity and abundance in amniotic fluid during preterm labor: a molecular and culture-based investigation. PLoS One. 3(8):e3056.
  • Dols JA, Smit PW, Kort R, Reid G, Schuren FHJ, Tempelman H, Bontekoe TR, Korporaal H. 2011. Microarray-based identification of clinically relevant vaginal bacteria in relation to bacterial vaginosis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 204(4):305 e1–7.
  • Dols JAM, Molenaar D, van der Helm JJ, Caspers MPM, de Kat Angelino-Bart A, Schuren FHJ, Speksnijder AGCL, Westerhoff HV, Richardus JH, Boon ME, et al. 2016. Molecular assessment of bacterial vaginosis by Lactobacillus abundance and species diversity. BMC Infect Dis. 16:180.
  • Dominguez-Bello MG, Costello EK, Contreras M, Magris M, Hidalgo G, Fierer N, Knight R. 2010. Delivery mode shapes the acquisition and structure of the initial microbiota across multiple body habitats in newborns. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 107(26):11971–11975.
  • Doorbar J, Egawa N, Griffin H, Kranjec C, Murakami I. 2015. Human papillomavirus molecular biology and disease association. Rev Med Virol. 25(1):2–23.
  • Duff P. 1997. Antibiotic selection in obstetric patients. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 11(1):1–12.
  • Egawa N, Egawa K, Griffin H, Doorbar J. 2015. Human papillomaviruses; epithelial tropisms, and the development of neoplasia. Viruses. 7(7):3863–3890.
  • Eisenberg T, Fawzy A, Nicklas W, Semmler T, Ewers C. 2016. Phylogenetic and comparative genomics of the family Leptotrichiaceae and introduction of a novel fingerprinting MLVA for Streptobacillus moniliformis. BMC Genomics. 17(1):864.
  • Elovitz MA, Gajer P, Riis V, Brown AG, Humphrys MS, Holm JB, Ravel J. 2019. Cervicovaginal microbiota and local immune response modulate the risk of spontaneous preterm delivery. Nat Commun. 10(1):1305.
  • Eribe ER, Olsen I. 2008. Leptotrichia species in human infections. Anaerobe. 14(3):131–137.
  • Eribe ERK, Olsen I. 2017. Leptotrichia species in human infections II. J Oral Microbiol. 9(1):1368848.
  • Eribe ERK, Paster BJ, Caugant DA, Dewhirst FE, Stromberg VK, Lacy GH, Olsen I. 2004. Genetic diversity of Leptotrichia and description of Leptotrichia goodfellowii sp. nov., Leptotrichia hofstadii sp. nov., Leptotrichia shahii sp. nov. and Leptotrichia wadei sp. nov. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 54(2):583–592.
  • Faro S, Walker C, Pierson RL. 1980. Amnionitis with intact amniotic membranes involving Streptobacillus moniliformis. Obstet Gynecol. 55(3):9S–11S.
  • Fethers K, Twin J, Fairley CK, Fowkes FJI, Garland SM, Fehler G, Morton AM, Hocking JS, Tabrizi SN, Bradshaw CS, et al. 2012. Bacterial vaginosis (BV) candidate bacteria: associations with BV and behavioural practices in sexually-experienced and inexperienced women. PLoS One. 7(2):e30633.
  • Fettweis JM, Serrano MG, Brooks JP, Edwards DJ, Girerd PH, Parikh HI, Huang B, Arodz TJ, Edupuganti L, Glascock AL, et al. 2019. The vaginal microbiome and preterm birth. Nat Med. 25(6):1012–1021.
  • Florova V, Romero R, Tarca AL, Galaz J, Motomura K, Ahmad MM, Hsu C-D, Hsu R, Tong A, Ravel J, et al. 2021. Vaginal host immune-microbiome interactions in a cohort of primarily African-American women who ultimately underwent spontaneous preterm birth or delivered at term. Cytokine. 137:155316.
  • Fredricks DN, Fiedler TL, Marrazzo JM. 2005. Molecular identification of bacteria associated with bacterial vaginosis. N Engl J Med. 353(18):1899–1911.
  • Fredricks DN, Fiedler TL, Thomas KK, Mitchell CM, Marrazzo JM. 2009. Changes in vaginal bacterial concentrations with intravaginal metronidazole therapy for bacterial vaginosis as assessed by quantitative PCR. J Clin Microbiol. 47(3):721–726.
  • Frost LS, Leplae R, Summers AO, Toussaint A. 2005. Mobile genetic elements: the agents of open source evolution. Nat Rev Microbiol. 3(9):722–732.
  • Gaastra W, Boot R, Ho HTK, Lipman LJA. 2009. Rat bite fever. Vet Microbiol. 133(3):211–228.
  • Gajer P, Brotman RM, Bai G, Sakamoto J, Schütte UME, Zhong X, Koenig SSK, Fu L, Ma ZS, Zhou X, et al. 2012. Temporal dynamics of the human vaginal microbiota. Sci Transl Med. 4(132):132ra52.
  • Galaz J, Romero R, Slutsky R, Xu Y, Motomura K, Para R, Pacora P, Panaitescu B, Hsu C-D, Kacerovsky M, et al. 2020. Cellular immune responses in amniotic fluid of women with preterm prelabour rupture of membranes. J Perinat Med. 48(3):222–233.
  • Galaz J, Romero R, Xu Y, Miller D, Slutsky R, Levenson D, Hsu C-D, Gomez-Lopez N. 2020. Cellular immune responses in amniotic fluid of women with preterm clinical chorioamnionitis. Inflamm Res. 69(2):203–216.
  • Garcia EM, Kraskauskiene V, Koblinski JE, Jefferson KK. 2019. Interaction of Gardnerella vaginalis and Vaginolysin with the Apical versus Basolateral Face of a Three-Dimensional Model of Vaginal Epithelium. Infect Immun. 87(4):1–16.
  • Gardella C, Riley DE, Hitti J, Agnew K, Krieger JN, Eschenbach D. 2004. Identification and sequencing of bacterial rDNAs in culture-negative amniotic fluid from women in premature labor. Am J Perinatol. 21(6):319–323.
  • Gentile GL, Rupert AS, Carrasco LI, Garcia EM, Kumar NG, Walsh SW, Jefferson KK. 2020. Identification of a cytopathogenic toxin from Sneathia amnii. J Bacteriol. 202(13):1–11.
  • Gibbs RS, Blanco JD, St Clair PJ, Castaneda YS. 1982. Quantitative bacteriology of amniotic fluid from women with clinical intraamniotic infection at term. J Infect Dis. 145(1):1–8.
  • Gibbs RS, Dinsmoor MJ, Newton ER, Ramamurthy RS. 1988. A randomized trial of intrapartum versus immediate postpartum treatment of women with intra-amniotic infection. Obstet Gynecol. 72(6):823–828.
  • Gibbs RS, Duff P. 1991. Progress in pathogenesis and management of clinical intraamniotic infection. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 164(5):1317–1326.
  • Gilstrap LC, 3rd, Cox SM. 1989. Acute chorioamnionitis. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am. 16(2):373–379.
  • Goldenberg RL, Culhane JF, Iams JD, Romero R. 2008. Epidemiology and causes of preterm birth. Lancet. 371(9606):75–84.
  • Goldenberg RL, Thom E, Moawad AH, Johnson F, Roberts J, Caritis SN. 1996. The preterm prediction study: fetal fibronectin, bacterial vaginosis, and peripartum infection. NICHD Maternal Fetal Medicine Units Network. Obstet Gynecol. 87(5):656–660.
  • Gomez-Lopez N, Romero R, Galaz J, Xu Y, Panaitescu B, Slutsky R, Motomura K, Gill N, Para R, Pacora P, et al. 2019. Cellular immune responses in amniotic fluid of women with preterm labor and intra-amniotic infection or intra-amniotic inflammation. Am J Reprod Immunol. 82(5):e13171.
  • Gomez-Lopez N, Romero R, Garcia-Flores V, Xu Y, Leng Y, Alhousseini A, Hassan SS, Panaitescu B. 2017. Amniotic fluid neutrophils can phagocytize bacteria: a mechanism for microbial killing in the amniotic cavity. Am J Reprod Immunol. 78(4):e12723.
  • Gomez-Lopez N, Romero R, Leng Y, Xu Y, Slutsky R, Levenson D, Pacora P, Jung E, Panaitescu B, Hsu C-D, et al. 2019. The origin of amniotic fluid monocytes/macrophages in women with intra-amniotic inflammation or infection. J Perinat Med. 47(8):822–840.
  • Gomez-Lopez N, Romero R, Maymon E, Kusanovic JP, Panaitescu B, Miller D, Pacora P, Tarca AL, Motomura K, Erez O, et al. 2019. Clinical chorioamnionitis at term IX: in vivo evidence of intra-amniotic inflammasome activation. J Perinat Med. 47(3):276–287.
  • Gomez-Lopez N, Romero R, Xu Y, Leng Y, Garcia-Flores V, Miller D, Jacques SM, Hassan SS, Faro J, Alsamsam A, et al. 2017. Are amniotic fluid neutrophils in women with intraamniotic infection and/or inflammation of fetal or maternal origin? Am J Obstet Gynecol. 217(6):693.e1–693.e16.
  • Goncalves LF, Chaiworapongsa T, Romero R. 2002. Intrauterine infection and prematurity. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev. 8(1):3–13.
  • Gosmann C, Anahtar MN, Handley SA, Farcasanu M, Abu-Ali G, Bowman BA, Padavattan N, Desai C, Droit L, Moodley A, et al. 2017. Lactobacillus-deficient cervicovaginal bacterial communities are associated with increased HIV acquisition in young South African women. Immunity. 46(1):29–37.
  • Gotsch F, Romero R, Kusanovic JP, Mazaki-Tovi S, Pineles BL, Erez O, Espinoza J, Hassan SS. 2007. The fetal inflammatory response syndrome. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 50(3):652–683.
  • Gottschick C, Deng Z-L, Vital M, Masur C, Abels C, Pieper DH, Rohde M, Mendling W, Wagner-Döbler I. 2017. Treatment of biofilms in bacterial vaginosis by an amphoteric tenside pessary-clinical study and microbiota analysis. Microbiome. 5(1):119.
  • Gottschick C, Deng Z-L, Vital M, Masur C, Abels C, Pieper DH, Wagner-Döbler I. 2017. The urinary microbiota of men and women and its changes in women during bacterial vaginosis and antibiotic treatment. Microbiome. 5(1):99.
  • Gundi VA, Desbriere R, Scola BL. 2004. Leptotrichia amnionii and the female reproductive tract. Emerg Infect Dis. 10(11):2056–2057.
  • Gupta RS, Sethi M. 2014. Phylogeny and molecular signatures for the phylum Fusobacteria and its distinct subclades. Anaerobe. 28:182–198.
  • Haggerty CL, Hillier SL, Bass DC, Ness RB. 2004. Bacterial vaginosis and anaerobic bacteria are associated with endometritis. Clin Infect Dis. 39(7):990–995.
  • Haggerty CL, Totten PA, Ferris M, Martin DH, Hoferka S, Astete SG, Ondondo R, Norori J, Ness RB. 2009. Clinical characteristics of bacterial vaginosis among women testing positive for fastidious bacteria. Sex Transm Infect. 85(4):242–248.
  • Hanff PA, Rosol-Donoghue JA, Spiegel CA, Wilson KH, Moore LH. 1995. Leptotrichia sanguinegens sp. nov., a new agent of postpartum and neonatal bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis. 20(2):S237–S239.
  • Hardy L, Cerca N, Jespers V, Vaneechoutte M, Crucitti T. 2017. Bacterial biofilms in the vagina. Res Microbiol. 168(9-10):865–874.
  • Hardy L, Jespers V, Abdellati S, De Baetselier I, Mwambarangwe L, Musengamana V, van de Wijgert J, Vaneechoutte M, Crucitti T. 2016. A fruitful alliance: the synergy between Atopobium vaginae and Gardnerella vaginalis in bacterial vaginosis-associated biofilm. Sex Transm Infect. 92(7):487–491.
  • Harmanli OH, Cheng GY, Nyirjesy P, Chatwani A, Gaughan JP. 2000. Urinary tract infections in women with bacterial vaginosis. Obstet Gynecol. 95(5):710–712.
  • Harwich MD, Alves JM, Buck GA, Strauss JF, Patterson JL, Oki AT, Girerd PH, Jefferson KK. Jr., 2010. Drawing the line between commensal and pathogenic Gardnerella vaginalis through genome analysis and virulence studies. BMC Genomics. 11:375.
  • Harwich MD, Serrano MG, Fettweis JM, Alves JMP, Reimers MA, Buck GA, Jefferson KK. Jr. 2012. Genomic sequence analysis and characterization of Sneathia amnii sp. nov. BMC Genomics. 13(8):S4.
  • Hilbert DW, Smith WL, Paulish-Miller TE, Chadwick SG, Toner G, Mordechai E, Adelson ME, Sobel JD, Gygax SE. 2016. Utilization of molecular methods to identify prognostic markers for recurrent bacterial vaginosis. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 86(2):231–242.
  • Hildebrand F, Meyer A, Eyre-Walker A. 2010. Evidence of selection upon genomic GC-content in bacteria. PLoS Genet. 6(9):e1001107.
  • Hillier SL, Kiviat NB, Hawes SE, Hasselquist MB, Hanssen PW, Eschenbach DA, Holmes KK. 1996. Role of bacterial vaginosis-associated microorganisms in endometritis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 175(2):435–441.
  • Hillier SL, Nugent RP, Eschenbach DA, Krohn MA, Gibbs RS, Martin DH, Cotch MF, Edelman R, Pastorek JG, Rao AV, et al. 1995. Association between bacterial vaginosis and preterm delivery of a low-birth-weight infant. The Vaginal Infections and Prematurity Study Group. N Engl J Med. 333(26):1737–1742.
  • Hocevar K, Maver A, Simic MV, Hodzic A, Haslberger A, Sersen TP, Peterlin B. 2019. Vaginal microbiome signature is associated with spontaneous preterm delivery. Front Med (Lausanne). 6:201.
  • Hornychova H, Kacerovsky M, Musilova I, Pliskova L, Zemlickova H, Matejkova A, Vosmikova H, Rozkosova K, Cermakova P, Bolehovska R, et al. 2018. Cervical human papillomavirus infection in women with preterm prelabour rupture of membranes. PLoS One. 13(11):e0207896.
  • Jung H-S, Ehlers MM, Lombaard H, Redelinghuys MJ, Kock MM. 2017. Etiology of bacterial vaginosis and polymicrobial biofilm formation. Crit Rev Microbiol. 43(6):651–667.
  • Kacerovsky M, Celec P, Vlkova B, Skogstrand K, Hougaard DM, Cobo T, Jacobsson B. 2013. Amniotic fluid protein profiles of intraamniotic inflammatory response to Ureaplasma spp. and other bacteria. PLoS One. 8(3):e60399.
  • Kenyon C, Colebunders R, Crucitti T. 2013. The global epidemiology of bacterial vaginosis: a systematic review. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 209(6):505–523.
  • Kotaskova I, Nemec P, Vanerkova M, Malisova B, Tejkalova R, Orban M, Zampachova V, Freiberger T. 2017. First report of Sneathia sanguinegens together with Mycoplasma hominis in postpartum prosthetic valve infective endocarditis: a case report. BMC Infect Dis. 17(1):563.
  • Koumans EH, Sternberg M, Bruce C, McQuillan G, Kendrick J, Sutton M, Markowitz LE. 2007. The prevalence of bacterial vaginosis in the United States, 2001-2004; associations with symptoms, sexual behaviors, and reproductive health. Sex Transm Dis. 34(11):864–869.
  • Kulkarni P, Frommolt P. 2017. Challenges in the setup of large-scale next-generation sequencing analysis workflows. Comput Struct Biotechnol J. 15:471–477.
  • Kurjak A, Renzo GCD, Stanojevic M. 2010. Globalization and perinatal medicine–how do we respond? J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 23(4):286–296.
  • Kuzniewicz MW, Puopolo KM, Fischer A, Walsh EM, Li S, Newman TB, Kipnis P, Escobar GJ. 2017. A quantitative, risk-based approach to the management of neonatal early-onset sepsis. JAMA Pediatr. 171(4):365–371.
  • Lamp KC, Freesman CD, Klutman NE, Lacy MK. 1999. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the nitroimidazole antimicrobials. Clin Pharmacokinet. 36(5):353–373.
  • Laniewski P, Barnes D, Goulder A, Cui H, Roe DJ, Chase DM, Herbst-Kralovetz MM. 2018. Linking cervicovaginal immune signatures, HPV and microbiota composition in cervical carcinogenesis in non-Hispanic and Hispanic women. Sci Rep. 8(1):7593.
  • Lannon SMR, Adams Waldorf KM, Fiedler T, Kapur RP, Agnew K, Rajagopal L, Gravett MG, Fredricks DN. 2019. Parallel detection of lactobacillus and bacterial vaginosis-associated bacterial DNA in the chorioamnion and vagina of pregnant women at term. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 32(16):2702–2710.
  • Lee AC, Blencowe H, Lawn JE. 2019. Small babies, big numbers: global estimates of preterm birth. Lancet Glob Health. 7(1):e2–e3.
  • Lee JE, Lee S, Lee H, Song Y-M, Lee K, Han MJ, Sung J, Ko GPyo. 2013. Association of the vaginal microbiota with human papillomavirus infection in a Korean twin cohort. PLoS One. 8(5):e63514.
  • Lee SE, Romero R, Jung H, Park C-W, Park JS, Yoon BH. 2007. The intensity of the fetal inflammatory response in intraamniotic inflammation with and without microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 197(3):294.
  • Lee SE, Romero R, Kim CJ, Shim S-S, Yoon BH. 2006. Funisitis in term pregnancy is associated with microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity and intra-amniotic inflammation. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 19(11):693–697.
  • Leitich H, Bodner-Adler B, Brunbauer M, Kaider A, Egarter C, Husslein P. 2003. Bacterial vaginosis as a risk factor for preterm delivery: a meta-analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 189(1):139–147.
  • Ling Z, Liu X, Chen W, Luo Y, Yuan L, Xia Y, Nelson KE, Huang S, Zhang S, Wang Y, et al. 2013. The restoration of the vaginal microbiota after treatment for bacterial vaginosis with metronidazole or probiotics. Microb Ecol. 65(3):773–780.
  • Ling Z, Liu X, Chen X, Zhu H, Nelson KE, Xia Y, Li L, Xiang C. 2011. Diversity of cervicovaginal microbiota associated with female lower genital tract infections. Microb Ecol. 61(3):704–714.
  • Liu CM, Hungate BA, Tobian AAR, Ravel J, Prodger JL, Serwadda D, Kigozi G, Galiwango RM, Nalugoda F, Keim P, et al. 2015. Penile microbiota and female partner bacterial vaginosis in Rakai, Uganda. mBio. 6(3):e00589.
  • Liu L, Oza S, Hogan D, Perin J, Rudan I, Lawn JE, Cousens S, Mathers C, Black RE. 2015. Global, regional, and national causes of child mortality in 2000-13, with projections to inform post-2015 priorities: an updated systematic analysis. Lancet. 385(9966):430–440.
  • Lofmark S, Edlund C, Nord CE. 2010. Metronidazole is still the drug of choice for treatment of anaerobic infections. Clin Infect Dis. 50(1):S16–S23.
  • Ma B, France MT, Crabtree J, Holm JB, Humphrys MS, Brotman RM, Ravel J. 2020. A comprehensive non-redundant gene catalog reveals extensive within-community intraspecies diversity in the human vagina. Nat Commun. 11(1):940.
  • Macklaim JM, Clemente JC, Knight R, Gloor GB, Reid G. 2015. Changes in vaginal microbiota following antimicrobial and probiotic therapy. Microb Ecol Health Dis. 26:27799.
  • Marconi C, de Andrade Ramos BR, Peraçoli JC, Donders GGG, da Silva MG. 2011. Amniotic fluid interleukin-1 beta and interleukin-6, but not interleukin-8 correlate with microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity in preterm labor. Am J Reprod Immunol. 65(6):549–556.
  • Marconi C, Donders GG, Parada CMGL, Giraldo PC, da Silva MG. 2013. Do Atopobium vaginae, Megasphaera sp. and Leptotrichia sp. change the local innate immune response and sialidase activity in bacterial vaginosis? Sex Transm Infect. 89(2):167–173.
  • Marrazzo JM, Fiedler TL, Srinivasan S, Thomas KK, Liu C, Ko D, Xie H, Saracino M, Fredricks DN. 2012. Extravaginal reservoirs of vaginal bacteria as risk factors for incident bacterial vaginosis. J Infect Dis. 205(10):1580–1588.
  • Martinez-Varea A, Romero R, Xu Y, Miller D, Ahmed AI, Chaemsaithong P, Chaiyasit N, Yeo L, Shaman M, Lannaman K, et al. 2017. Clinical chorioamnionitis at term VII: the amniotic fluid cellular immune response. J Perinat Med. 45(5):523–538.
  • McClelland RS, Lingappa JR, Srinivasan S, Kinuthia J, John-Stewart GC, Jaoko W, Richardson BA, Yuhas K, Fiedler TL, Mandaliya KN, et al. 2018. Evaluation of the association between the concentrations of key vaginal bacteria and the increased risk of HIV acquisition in African women from five cohorts: a nested case-control study. Lancet Infect Dis. 18(5):554–564.
  • Mehta SD, Zhao D, Green SJ, Agingu W, Otieno F, Bhaumik R, Bhaumik D, Bailey RC. 2020. The microbiome composition of a man’s penis predicts incident bacterial vaginosis in his female sex partner with high accuracy. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 10:433.
  • Mirmonsef P, Hotton AL, Gilbert D, Gioia CJ, Maric D, Hope TJ, Landay AL, Spear GT. 2016. Glycogen levels in undiluted genital fluid and their relationship to vaginal pH, estrogen, and progesterone. PLoS One. 11(4):e0153553.
  • Mitchell C, Fredricks D, Agnew K, Hitti J. 2015. Hydrogen peroxide-producing Lactobacilli are associated with lower levels of vaginal interleukin-1β, independent of bacterial vaginosis. Sex Transm Dis. 42(7):358–363.
  • Mitchell CM, Hitti JE, Agnew KJ, Fredricks DN. 2009. Comparison of oral and vaginal metronidazole for treatment of bacterial vaginosis in pregnancy: impact on fastidious bacteria. BMC Infect Dis. 9:89.
  • Mitra A, MacIntyre DA, Lee YS, Smith A, Marchesi JR, Lehne B, Bhatia R, Lyons D, Paraskevaidis E, Li JV, et al. 2015. Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia disease progression is associated with increased vaginal microbiome diversity. Sci Rep. 5(1):16865.
  • Moon J-Y, Zolnik CP, Wang Z, Qiu Y, Usyk M, Wang T, Kizer JR, Landay AL, Kurland IJ, Anastos K, et al. 2018. Gut microbiota and plasma metabolites associated with diabetes in women with, or at high risk for, HIV infection. EBioMedicine. 37:392–400.
  • Munoz N, Bosch FX, de Sanjose S, Herrero R, Castellsague X, Shah KV, Snijders PJF, Meijer CJLM. 2003. Epidemiologic classification of human papillomavirus types associated with cervical cancer. N Engl J Med. 348(6):518–527.
  • Murphy K, Mitchell CM. 2016. The interplay of host immunity, environment and the risk of bacterial vaginosis and associated reproductive health outcomes. J Infect Dis. 214(1):S29–S35.
  • Musilova I, Andrys C, Drahosova M, Zednikova B, Hornychova H, Pliskova L, Zemlickova H, Jacobsson B, Kacerovsky M. 2018. Late preterm prelabour rupture of fetal membranes: fetal inflammatory response and neonatal outcome. Pediatr Res. 83(3):630–637.
  • Musilova I, Kacerovsky M, Stepan M, Bestvina T, Pliskova L, Zednikova B, Jacobsson B. 2017. Maternal serum C-reactive protein concentration and intra-amniotic inflammation in women with preterm prelabour rupture of membranes. PLoS One. 12(8):e0182731.
  • Musilova I, Pliskova L, Gerychova R, Janku P, Simetka O, Matlak P, Jacobsson B, Kacerovsky M. 2017. Maternal white blood cell count cannot identify the presence of microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity or intra-amniotic inflammation in women with preterm prelabour rupture of membranes. PLoS One. 12(12):e0189394.
  • Muzny CA, Blanchard E, Taylor CM, Aaron KJ, Talluri R, Griswold ME, Redden DT, Luo M, Welsh DA, Van Der Pol WJ, et al. 2018. Identification of key bacteria involved in the induction of incident bacterial vaginosis: a prospective study. J Infect Dis. 218(6):966–978.
  • Nasioudis D, Linhares IM, Ledger WJ, Witkin SS. 2017. Bacterial vaginosis: a critical analysis of current knowledge. BJOG. 124(1):61–69.
  • Nelson DB, Hanlon A, Nachamkin I, Haggerty C, Mastrogiannis DS, Liu C, Fredricks DN. 2014. Early pregnancy changes in bacterial vaginosis-associated bacteria and preterm delivery. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 28(2):88–96.
  • Nelson DE, Van Der Pol B, Dong Q, Revanna KV, Fan B, Easwaran S, Sodergren E, Weinstock GM, Diao L, Fortenberry JD, et al. 2010. Characteristic male urine microbiomes associate with asymptomatic sexually transmitted infection. PLoS One. 5(11):e14116.
  • Nelson TM, Borgogna J-LC, Brotman RM, Ravel J, Walk ST, Yeoman CJ. 2015. Vaginal biogenic amines: biomarkers of bacterial vaginosis or precursors to vaginal dysbiosis? Front Physiol. 6:253.
  • Newton ER. 1993. Chorioamnionitis and intraamniotic infection. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 36(4):795–808.
  • Niu SY, Yang J, McDermaid A, Zhao J, Kang Y, Ma Q. 2018. Bioinformatics tools for quantitative and functional metagenome and metatranscriptome data analysis in microbes. Brief Bioinform. 19(6):1415–1429.
  • Nolan M, Gronow S, Lapidus A, Ivanova N, Copeland A, Lucas S, Del Rio TG, Chen F, Tice H, Pitluck S, et al. 2009. Complete genome sequence of Streptobacillus moniliformis type strain (9901). Stand Genomic Sci. 1(3):300–307.
  • Noyes N, Cho K-C, Ravel J, Forney LJ, Abdo Z. 2018. Associations between sexual habits, menstrual hygiene practices, demographics and the vaginal microbiome as revealed by Bayesian network analysis. PLoS One. 13(1):e0191625.
  • Onderdonk AB, Delaney ML, Fichorova RN. 2016. The human microbiome during bacterial vaginosis. Clin Microbiol Rev. 29(2):223–238.
  • Onywera H, Williamson A-L, Mbulawa ZZA, Coetzee D, Meiring TL. 2019. The cervical microbiota in reproductive-age South African women with and without human papillomavirus infection. Papillomavirus Res. 7:154–163.
  • Parry S, et al. 2020. Cervicovaginal fluid proteomic analysis to identify potential biomarkers for preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 222(5):493 e1–493 e13.
  • Pins MR, Holden JM, Yang JM, Madoff S, Ferraro MJ. 1996. Isolation of presumptive Streptobacillus moniliformis from abscesses associated with the female genital tract. Clin Infect Dis. 22(3):471–476.
  • Puri K, Taft DH, Ambalavanan N, Schibler KR, Morrow AL, Kallapur SG. 2016. Association of chorioamnionitis with aberrant neonatal gut colonization and adverse clinical outcomes. PLoS One. 11(9):e0162734.
  • Ravel J, Gajer P, Abdo Z, Schneider GM, Koenig SSK, McCulle SL, Karlebach S, Gorle R, Russell J, Tacket CO, et al. 2011. Vaginal microbiome of reproductive-age women. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 108(1):4680–4687.
  • Redline RW. 2012. Inflammatory response in acute chorioamnionitis. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 17(1):20–25.
  • Rivkin A, Gim S. 2011. Rifaximin: new therapeutic indication and future directions. Clin Ther. 33(7):812–827.
  • Romero R, Chaemsaithong P, Docheva N, Korzeniewski SJ, Tarca AL, Bhatti G, Xu Z, Kusanovic JP, Dong Z, Chaiyasit N, et al. 2016. Clinical chorioamnionitis at term IV: the maternal plasma cytokine profile. J Perinat Med. 44(1):77–98.
  • Romero R, Chaemsaithong P, Korzeniewski SJ, Kusanovic JP, Docheva N, Martinez-Varea A, Ahmed AI, Yoon BH, Hassan SS, Chaiworapongsa T, et al. 2016. Clinical chorioamnionitis at term III: how well do clinical criteria perform in the identification of proven intra-amniotic infection? J Perinat Med. 44(1):23–32.
  • Romero R, Chaemsaithong P, Korzeniewski SJ, Tarca AL, Bhatti G, Xu Z, Kusanovic JP, Dong Z, Docheva N, Martinez-Varea A, et al. 2016. Clinical chorioamnionitis at term II: the intra-amniotic inflammatory response. J Perinat Med. 44(1):5–22.
  • Romero R, Chaiworapongsa T, Kuivaniemi H, Tromp G. 2004. Bacterial vaginosis, the inflammatory response and the risk of preterm birth: a role for genetic epidemiology in the prevention of preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 190(6):1509–1519.
  • Romero R, Miranda J, Kusanovic JP, Chaiworapongsa T, Chaemsaithong AM, Gotsch F, Dong Z, Ahmed AI, Shaman M, Lannaman K, et al. 2015. Clinical chorioamnionitis at term I: microbiology of the amniotic cavity using cultivation and molecular techniques. J Perinat Med. 43(1):19–36.
  • Romero R, Chaemsaithong P, Docheva N, Korzeniewski SJ, Tarca AL, Bhatti G, Xu Z, Kusanovic JP, Chaiyasit N, Dong Z, et al. 2016. Clinical chorioamnionitis at term V: umbilical cord plasma cytokine profile in the context of a systemic maternal inflammatory response. J Perinat Med. 44(1):53–76.
  • Romero R, Chaemsaithong P, Docheva N, Korzeniewski SJ, Kusanovic JP, Yoon BH, Kim J-S, Chaiyasit N, Ahmed A, Qureshi F, et al. 2016. Clinical chorioamnionitis at term VI: acute chorioamnionitis and funisitis according to the presence or absence of microorganisms and inflammation in the amniotic cavity. J Perinat Med. 44(1):33–51.
  • Romero R, Gomez-Lopez N, Kusanovic JP, Pacora P, Panaitescu B, Erez O, Yoon BH. 2018. Clinical chorioamnionitis at term: new insights into the etiology, microbiology, and the fetal, maternal and amniotic cavity inflammatory responses. Nogyogyaszati Szuleszeti Tovabbkepzo Szemle. 20(3):103–112.
  • Romero R, Gomez-Lopez N, Winters AD, Jung E, Shaman M, Bieda J, Panaitescu B, Pacora P, Erez O, Greenberg JM, et al. 2019. Evidence that intra-amniotic infections are often the result of an ascending invasion - a molecular microbiological study. J Perinat Med. 47(9):915–931.
  • Romero R, Miranda J, Chaemsaithong P, Chaiworapongsa T, Kusanovic JP, Dong Z, Ahmed AI, Shaman M, Lannaman K, Yoon BH, et al. 2015. Sterile and microbial-associated intra-amniotic inflammation in preterm prelabour rupture of membranes. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 28(12):1394–1409.
  • Romero R, Miranda J, Chaiworapongsa T, Chaemsaithong P, Gotsch F, Dong Z, Ahmed AI, Yoon BH, Hassan SS, Kim CJ, et al. 2014. A novel molecular microbiologic technique for the rapid diagnosis of microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity and intra-amniotic infection in preterm labor with intact membranes. Am J Reprod Immunol. 71(4):330–358.
  • Romero R, Miranda J, Chaiworapongsa T, Chaemsaithong P, Gotsch F, Dong Z, Ahmed AI, Yoon BH, Hassan SS, Kim CJ, et al. 2015. Sterile intra-amniotic inflammation in asymptomatic patients with a sonographic short cervix: prevalence and clinical significance. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 28(11):1343–1359.
  • Rouse DJ, Landon M, Leveno KJ, Leindecker S, Varner MW, Caritis SN, O’Sullivan MJ, Wapner RJ, Meis PJ, Miodovnik M, et al. 2004. The Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units cesarean registry: chorioamnionitis at term and its duration-relationship to outcomes. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 191(1):211–216.
  • Sabo MC, Lehman DA, Wang B, Richardson BA, Srinivasan S, Osborn L, Matemo D, Kinuthia J, Fiedler TL, Munch MM, et al. 2020. Associations between vaginal bacteria implicated in HIV acquisition risk and proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines. Sex Transm Infect. 96(1):3–9.
  • Scarpignato C, Pelosini I. 2005. Rifaximin, a poorly absorbed antibiotic: pharmacology and clinical potential. Chemotherapy. 51(1):36–66.
  • Schwebke JR, Muzny CA, Josey WE. 2014. Role of Gardnerella vaginalis in the pathogenesis of bacterial vaginosis: a conceptual model. J Infect Dis. 210(3):338–343.
  • Shane AL, Sanchez PJ, Stoll BJ. 2017. Neonatal sepsis. Lancet. 390(10104):1770–1780.
  • Shaw JL, Smith CR, Diamandis EP. 2007. Proteomic analysis of human cervico-vaginal fluid. J Proteome Res. 6(7):2859–2865.
  • Shukla SK, Meier PR, Mitchell PD, Frank DN, Reed KD. 2002. Leptotrichia amnionii sp. nov., a novel bacterium isolated from the amniotic fluid of a woman after intrauterine fetal demise. J Clin Microbiol. 40(9):3346–3349.
  • Sobel JD. 2000. Bacterial vaginosis. Annu Rev Med. 51:349–356.
  • Spear GT, Sikaroodi M, Zariffard MR, Landay AL, French AL, Gillevet PM. 2008. Comparison of the diversity of the vaginal microbiota in HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected women with or without bacterial vaginosis. J Infect Dis. 198(8):1131–1140.
  • Srinivasan S, Hoffman NG, Morgan MT, Matsen FA, Fiedler TL, Hall RW, Ross FJ, McCoy CO, Bumgarner R, Marrazzo JM, et al. 2012. Bacterial communities in women with bacterial vaginosis: high resolution phylogenetic analyses reveal relationships of microbiota to clinical criteria. PLoS One. 7(6):e37818.
  • Srinivasan S, Munch MM, Sizova MV, Fiedler TL, Kohler CM, Hoffman NG, Liu C, Agnew KJ, Marrazzo JM, Epstein SS, et al. 2016. More easily cultivated than identified: classical isolation with molecular identification of vaginal bacteria. J Infect Dis. 214(1):S21–S28.
  • Steenbergen RDM, Snijders PJF, Heideman DAM, Meijer CJLM. 2014. Clinical implications of (epi)genetic changes in HPV-induced cervical precancerous lesions. Nat Rev Cancer. 14(6):395–405.
  • Swidsinski A, Mendling W, Loening-Baucke V, Ladhoff A, Swidsinski S, Hale LP, Lochs H. 2005. Adherent biofilms in bacterial vaginosis. Obstet Gynecol. 106(5):1013–1023.
  • Swidsinski A, Verstraelen H, Loening-Baucke V, Swidsinski S, Mendling W, Halwani Z. 2013. Presence of a polymicrobial endometrial biofilm in patients with bacterial vaginosis. PLoS One. 8(1):e53997.
  • Tamrakar R, Yamada T, Furuta I, Cho K, Morikawa M, Yamada H, Sakuragi N, Minakami H. 2007. Association between Lactobacillus species and bacterial vaginosis-related bacteria, and bacterial vaginosis scores in pregnant Japanese women. BMC Infect Dis. 7:128.
  • Taylor BD, Totten PA, Astete SG, Ferris MJ, Martin DH, Ness RB, Haggerty CL. 2018. Toll-like receptor variants and cervical Atopobium vaginae infection in women with pelvic inflammatory disease. Am J Reprod Immunol. 79(2):e12804.
  • Theis KR, Romero R, Motomura K, Galaz J, Winters AD, Pacora P, Miller D, Slutsky R, Florova V, Levenson D, et al. 2020. Microbial burden and inflammasome activation in amniotic fluid of patients with preterm prelabour rupture of membranes. J Perinat Med. 48(2):115–131.
  • Tita AT, Andrews WW. 2010. Diagnosis and management of clinical chorioamnionitis. Clin Perinatol. 37(2):339–354.
  • Urushiyama D, Suda W, Ohnishi E, Araki R, Kiyoshima C, Kurakazu M, Sanui A, Yotsumoto F, Murata M, Nabeshima K, et al. 2017. Microbiome profile of the amniotic fluid as a predictive biomarker of perinatal outcome. Sci Rep. 7(1):12171.
  • van der Veer C, van Houdt R, van Dam A, de Vries H, Bruisten S. 2018. Accuracy of a commercial multiplex PCR for the diagnosis of bacterial vaginosis. J Med Microbiol. 67(9):1265–1270.
  • van Dillen J, Zwart J, Schutte J, van Roosmalen J. 2010. Maternal sepsis: epidemiology, etiology and outcome. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 23(3):249–254.
  • Vesty A, Gear K, Biswas K, Mackenzie BW, Taylor MW, Douglas RG. 2020. Oral microbial influences on oral mucositis during radiotherapy treatment of head and neck cancer. Support Care Cancer. 28(6):2683–2691.
  • Vitorino P, Varo R, Castillo P, Hurtado JC, Fernandes F, Valente AM, Mabunda R, Mocumbi S, Gary JM, Jenkinson TG, et al. 2019. Sneathia amnii and maternal chorioamnionitis and stillbirth, Mozambique. Emerg Infect Dis. 25(8):1614–1616.
  • Wang Y, Zhang Y, Zhang Q, Chen H, Feng Y. 2018. Characterization of pelvic and cervical microbiotas from patients with pelvic inflammatory disease. J Med Microbiol. 67(10):1519–1526.
  • Wentzensen N, Vinokurova S, von Knebel Doeberitz M. 2004. Systematic review of genomic integration sites of human papillomavirus genomes in epithelial dysplasia and invasive cancer of the female lower genital tract. Cancer Res. 64(11):3878–3884.
  • Willi MJ, et al. 2002. Chorioamnionitis: elevated interleukin-6 and interleukin-8 concentrations in the lower uterine segment. J Perinat Med. 30(4):292–296.
  • Yeoman CJ, Yildirim S, Thomas SM, Durkin AS, Torralba M, Sutton G, Buhay CJ, Ding Y, Dugan-Rocha SP, Muzny DM, et al. 2010. Comparative genomics of Gardnerella vaginalis strains reveals substantial differences in metabolic and virulence potential. PLoS One. 5(8):e12411.
  • Zhou Y, Wang L, Pei F, Ji M, Zhang F, Sun Y, Zhao Q, Hong Y, Wang X, Tian J, et al. 2019. Patients with LR-HPV infection have a distinct vaginal microbiota in comparison with healthy controls. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 9:294.
  • Zur Hausen H. 1996. Papillomavirus infections–a major cause of human cancers. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1288(2):F55–F78.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.