4,417
Views
5
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Articles

Long-Term effects of COVID-19: a review of current perspectives and mechanistic insights

, , , , &
Pages 315-328 | Received 05 Jan 2022, Accepted 25 Feb 2023, Published online: 19 Apr 2023

References

  • Abboud H, Abboud FZ, Kharbouch H, Arkha Y, El Abbadi N, El Ouahabi A. 2020. COVID-19 and SARS-Cov-2 infection: pathophysiology and clinical effects on the nervous system. World Neurosurg. 140:49–53.
  • Abedi V, Olulana O, Avula V, Chaudhary D, Khan A, Shahjouei S, Li J, Zand R. 2021. Racial, economic, and health inequality and COVID-19 infection in the United States. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 8(3):732–742.
  • Adapa S, Chenna A, Balla M, Merugu GP, Koduri NM, Daggubati SR, Gayam V, Naramala S, Konala VM. 2020. COVID-19 Pandemic causing acute kidney injury and impact on patients with chronic kidney disease and renal transplantation. J Clin Med Res. 12(6):352–361.
  • Al-Aly Z, Xie Y, Bowe B. 2021. High-dimensional characterization of post-acute sequelae of COVID-19. Nature. 594(7862):259–264.
  • Ali Awan H, Najmuddin Diwan M, Aamir A, et al. 2021. SARS-CoV-2 and the brain: what do we know about the causality of 'cognitive COVID? J Clin Med. 10(15):3441.
  • Ambrosino P, Sanduzzi Zamparelli S, Mosella M, Formisano R, Molino A, Spedicato GA, Papa A, Motta A, Di Minno MND, Maniscalco M, et al. 2022. Clinical assessment of endothelial function in convalescent COVID-19 patients: a meta-analysis with meta-regressions. Ann Med. 54(1):3234–3249.
  • Amin-Chowdhury Z, Ladhani SN. 2021. Causation or confounding: why controls are critical for characterizing long COVID. Nat Med. 27(7):1129–1130.
  • Antonelli M, Pujol JC, Spector TD, Ourselin S, Steves CJ. 2022. Risk of long COVID associated with delta versus omicron variants of SARS-CoV-2. Lancet. 399(10343):2263–2264.
  • Arnold DT, Milne A, Samms E, Stadon L, Maskell NA, Hamilton FW. 2021. Symptoms after COVID-19 vaccination in patients with persistent symptoms after acute infection: a case series. Ann Intern Med. 174(9):1334–1336.
  • Arnold DT, Milne A, Samms E, Stadon L, Maskell NA, Hamilton FW. Are vaccines safe in patients with Long COVID? A prospective observational study. medRxiv 2021. 2021.03.11.21253225.
  • Awan S, Diwan MN, Aamir A, Allahuddin Z, Irfan M, Carano A, Vellante F, Ventriglio A, Fornaro M, Valchera A, et al. 2021. Suicide in healthcare workers: determinants, challenges, and the impact of COVID-19. Front Psychiatry. 12:792925.
  • Ayoubkhani D, Bermingham C, Pouwels KB, Glickman M, Nafilyan V, Zaccardi F, Khunti K, Alwan NA, Walker AS. 2022. Trajectory of long covid symptoms after covid-19 vaccination: community based cohort study. BMJ. 377:e069676.
  • Bai F, Tomasoni D, Falcinella C, et al. 2022. Female gender is associated with long COVID syndrome: a prospective cohort study. Clin Microbiol Infect. 28:611 e9–e16.
  • Batiha GE, Al-Kuraishy HM, Al-Gareeb AI, Welson NN. 2022. Pathophysiology of post-COVID syndromes: a new perspective. Virol J. 19(1):158.
  • Bayham J, Fenichel EP. 2020. Impact of school closures for COVID-19 on the US health-care workforce and net mortality: a modelling study. Lancet Public Health. 5(5):e271–e8.
  • Behnood SA, Shafran R, Bennett SD, Zhang AXD, O'Mahoney LL, Stephenson TJ, Ladhani SN, De Stavola BL, Viner RM, Swann OV. 2022. Persistent symptoms following SARS-CoV-2 infection amongst children and young people: A meta-analysis of controlled and uncontrolled studies. J Infect. 84(2):158–170.
  • Belot A, Antona D, Renolleau S, et al. 2020. SARS-CoV-2-related paediatric inflammatory multisystem syndrome, an epidemiological study, France, 1 March to 17 May 2020. Euro Surveill. 25:2001010.
  • Bozkurt B, Kamat I, Hotez PJ. 2021. Myocarditis with COVID-19 mRNA vaccines. Circulation. 144(6):471–484.
  • Bradley BT, Maioli H, Johnston R, Chaudhry I, Fink SL, Xu H, Najafian B, Deutsch G, Lacy JM, Williams T, et al. 2020. Histopathology and ultrastructural findings of fatal COVID-19 infections in Washington State: a case series. Lancet. 396(10247):320–332.
  • Buonsenso D, Espuny Pujol F, Munblit D, McFarland S, Simpson F. 2021. Clinical characteristics, activity levels and mental health problems in children with long COVID: a survey of 510 children. Preprints. 2021:030271.
  • Capone CA, Misra N, Ganigara M, Epstein S, Rajan S, Acharya SS, Hayes DA, Kearney MB, Romano A, Friedman RA, et al. 2021. Six month follow-up of patients with multi-system inflammatory syndrome in children. Pediatrics. 148(4):e2021050973.
  • Cardiovascular Consequences After COVID-19. 2021. (Accessed 15 March 2021, at https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04452630?term=observational%2C+long-term%2C+recovered&cond=Covid19&draw=2&rank=5.)
  • Carsana L, Sonzogni A, Nasr A, Rossi RS, Pellegrinelli A, Zerbi P, Rech R, Colombo R, Antinori S, Corbellino M, et al. 2020. Pulmonary post-mortem findings in a series of COVID-19 cases from northern Italy: a two-centre descriptive study. Lancet Infect Dis. 20(10):1135–1140.
  • Ceban F, Ling S, Lui LMW, Lee Y, Gill H, Teopiz KM, Rodrigues NB, Subramaniapillai M, Di Vincenzo JD, Cao B, et al. 2022. Fatigue and cognitive impairment in Post-COVID-19 Syndrome: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Brain Behav Immun. 101:93–135.
  • Chen C, Haupert SR, Zimmermann L, Shi X, Fritsche LG, Mukherjee B. 2022. Global prevalence of post-coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) condition or long COVID: a meta-analysis and systematic review. J Infect Dis. 226(9):1593–1607.
  • Chen L, Li X, Chen M, Feng Y, Xiong C. 2020. The ACE2 expression in human heart indicates new potential mechanism of heart injury among patients infected with SARS-CoV-2. Cardiovasc Res. 116(6):1097–1100.
  • Chen Y, Liu Q, Guo D. 2020. Emerging coronaviruses: genome structure, replication, and pathogenesis. J Med Virol. 92(4):418–423.
  • Choudhury A, Tariq R, Jena A, Vesely EK, Singh S, Khanna S, Sharma V. 2022. Gastrointestinal manifestations of long COVID: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Therap Adv Gastroenterol. 15:17562848221118403.
  • Cormican DS, Winter D, McHugh S, Sonny A, Crowley J, Yu R, Barrack F, Núñez-Gil IJ, Ramakrishna H. 2021. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 cardiovascular complications: implications for cardiothoracic anesthesiology. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 35(3):932–943.
  • Coronavirus Update 36: What We Know About the Long-Term Effects of COVID-19 2020. Accessed March 31, 2021at https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/risk-comms-updates/update-36-long-term-symptoms.pdf?sfvrsn=5d3789a6_2.)
  • Cothran TP, Kellman S, Singh S, Beck JS, Powell KJ, Bolton CJ, Tam JW. 2020. A brewing storm: the neuropsychological sequelae of hyperinflammation due to COVID-19. Brain Behav Immun. 88:957–958.
  • COVAX 2021. (Accessed July 1, 2021, at. Working for global equitable access to COVID-19 vaccines. https://www.who.int/initiatives/act-accelerator/covax.).
  • Cutler DM. 2022. The costs of long COVID. JAMA Health Forum. 3(5):e221809.
  • Czeisler MÉ, Marynak K, Clarke KEN, Salah Z, Shakya I, Thierry JM, Ali N, McMillan H, Wiley JF, Weaver MD, et al. 2020. Delay or avoidance of medical care because of COVID-19-related concerns - United States, June 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 69(36):1250–1257.
  • De Felice FG, Tovar-Moll F, Moll J, Munoz DP, Ferreira ST. 2020. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and the central nervous system. Trends Neurosci. 43(6):355–357.
  • Dirican E, Bal T. 2022. COVID-19 disease severity to predict persistent symptoms: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Prim Health Care Res Dev. 23:e69.
  • Dorri M, Mozafari Bazargany MH, Khodaparast Z, Bahrami S, Seifi Alan M, Rahimi F, Kamipoor Z, Niksima MM, Dehghan H, Rastad H. 2021. Psychological problems and reduced health-related quality of life in the COVID-19 survivors. J Affect Disord Rep. 6:100248.
  • Douaud G, Lee S, Alfaro-Almagro F, Arthofer C, Wang C, McCarthy P, Lange F, Andersson JLR, Griffanti L, Duff E, et al. 2022. SARS-CoV-2 is associated with changes in brain structure in UK Biobank. Nature. 604(7907):697–707.
  • Driggin E, Madhavan MV, Bikdeli B, Chuich T, Laracy J, Biondi-Zoccai G, Brown TS, Der Nigoghossian C, Zidar DA, Haythe J, et al. 2020. Cardiovascular considerations for patients, health care workers, and health systems during the COVID-19 pandemic. J Am Coll Cardiol. 75(18):2352–2371.
  • Dufort EM, Koumans EH, Chow EJ, Rosenthal EM, Muse A, Rowlands J, Barranco MA, Maxted AM, Rosenberg ES, Easton D, et al. 2020. Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children in New York State. N Engl J Med. 383(4):347–358.
  • Evaluate Long Term Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Complications After COVID-19 With Point of Care Ultrasound 2021. (Accessed 15 March 2021, at https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04756193?term=observational%2C+long-term%2C+recovered&cond=Covid19&draw=2&rank=7.)
  • Feldstein LR, Rose EB, Horwitz SM, Collins JP, Newhams MM, Son MBF, Newburger JW, Kleinman LC, Heidemann SM, Martin AA, et al. 2020. Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in U.S. children and adolescents. N Engl J Med. 383(4):334–346.
  • Flanagan EW, Beyl RA, Fearnbach SN, Altazan AD, Martin CK, Redman LM. 2021. The impact of COVID-19 stay-at-home orders on health behaviors in adults. Obesity (Silver Spring). 29(2):438–445.
  • Fraser E. 2020. Long term respiratory complications of covid-19. BMJ. 370:m3001.
  • Gang J, Wang H, Xue X, Zhang S. 2022. Microbiota and COVID-19: long-term and complex influencing factors. Front Microbiol. 13:963488.
  • Gao P, Liu J, Liu M. 2022. Effect of COVID-19 vaccines on reducing the risk of long COVID in the real world: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 19(19):12422.
  • Grasselli G, Zangrillo A, Zanella A, Antonelli M, Cabrini L, Castelli A, Cereda D, Coluccello A, Foti G, Fumagalli R, et al. 2020. Baseline characteristics and outcomes of 1591 patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 admitted to ICUs of the Lombardy Region, Italy. JAMA. 323(16):1574–1581.
  • Havervall S, Rosell A, Phillipson M, Mangsbo SM, Nilsson P, Hober S, Thålin C. 2021. Symptoms and functional impairment assessed 8 months after mild COVID-19 among health care workers. JAMA. 325(19):2015–2016.
  • Hayes LD, Ingram J, Sculthorpe NF. 2021. More than 100 persistent symptoms of SARS-CoV-2 (long COVID): a scoping review. Front Med (Lausanne). 8:750378.
  • Heneka MT, Golenbock D, Latz E, Morgan D, Brown R. 2020. Immediate and long-term consequences of COVID-19 infections for the development of neurological disease. Alzheimers Res Ther. 12:69.
  • Houben-Wilke S, Goërtz YM, Delbressine JM, Vaes AW, Meys R, Machado FV, van Herck M, Burtin C, Posthuma R, Franssen FM, et al. 2022. The impact of long COVID-19 on mental health: observational 6-month follow-up study. JMIR Ment Health. 9(2):e33704.
  • Iuliano AD, Brunkard JM, Boehmer TK, Peterson E, Adjei S, Binder AM, Cobb S, Graff P, Hidalgo P, Panaggio MJ, et al. 2022. Trends in disease severity and health care utilization during the early omicron variant period compared with previous SARS-CoV-2 high transmission periods - United States, December 2020-January 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 71(4):146–152.
  • Jacobson KB, Rao M, Bonilla H, Subramanian A, Hack I, Madrigal M, Singh U, Jagannathan P, Grant P. 2021. Patients with uncomplicated coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) have long-term persistent symptoms and functional impairment similar to patients with severe COVID-19: a cautionary tale during a global pandemic. Clin Infect Dis. 73(3):e826–e9.
  • Jennings G, Monaghan A, Xue F, Mockler D, Romero-Ortuno R. 2021. A systematic review of persistent symptoms and residual abnormal functioning following acute COVID-19: ongoing symptomatic phase vs. post-COVID-19 syndrome. J Clin Med. 10(24):5913.
  • Jin C, Tian C, Wang Y, Wu CC, Zhao H, Liang T, Liu Z, Jian Z, Li R, Wang Z, et al. 2020. A pattern categorization of CT findings to predict outcome of COVID-19 pneumonia. Front Public Health. 8:567672.
  • Johnson SF, Tiako MJN, Flash MJE, Lamas DJ, Alba GA. 2020. Disparities in the recovery from critical illness due to COVID-19. Lancet Psychiatry. 7(8):e54–e5.
  • Kim JH, Levine BD, Phelan D, Emery MS, Martinez MW, Chung EH, Thompson PD, Baggish AL. 2021. Coronavirus disease 2019 and the athletic heart: emerging perspectives on pathology, risks, and return to play. JAMA Cardiol. 6(2):219–227.
  • Kosugi EM, Lavinsky J, Romano FR, Fornazieri MA, Luz-Matsumoto GR, Lessa MM, Piltcher OB, Sant’Anna GD. 2020. Incomplete and late recovery of sudden olfactory dysfunction in COVID-19. Braz J Otorhinolaryngol. 86(4):490–496.
  • Lai H, Yang M, Sun M, Pan B, Wang Q, Wang J, Tian J, Ding G, Yang K, Song X, et al. 2022. Risk of incident diabetes after COVID-19 infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Metabolism. 137:155330.
  • Lavery AM, Preston LE, Ko JY, Chevinsky JR, DeSisto CL, Pennington AF, Kompaniyets L, Datta SD, Click ES, Golden T, et al. 2020. Characteristics of hospitalized COVID-19 patients discharged and experiencing same-hospital readmission - United States, March-August 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 69(45):1695–1699.
  • Lee JH, Yim JJ, Park J. 2022. Pulmonary function and chest computed tomography abnormalities 6-12 months after recovery from COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Respir Res. 23(1):233.
  • Lee Y, Min P, Lee S, Kim SW. 2020. Prevalence and duration of acute loss of smell or taste in COVID-19 patients. J Korean Med Sci. 35(18):e174.
  • Lennon JC. 2020. Neurologic and immunologic complications of COVID-19: potential long-term risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease. J Alzheimers Dis Rep. 4(1):217–221.
  • Lindner D, Fitzek A, Bräuninger H, Aleshcheva G, Edler C, Meissner K, Scherschel K, Kirchhof P, Escher F, Schultheiss H-P, et al. 2020. Association of cardiac infection with SARS-CoV-2 in confirmed COVID-19 autopsy cases. JAMA Cardiol. 5(11):1281–1285.
  • Liotta EM, Batra A, Clark JR, Shlobin NA, Hoffman SC, Orban ZS, Koralnik IJ. 2020. Frequent neurologic manifestations and encephalopathy-associated morbidity in Covid-19 patients. Ann Clin Transl Neurol. 7(11):2221–2230.
  • Liu Q, Mak JWY, Su Q, Yeoh YK, Lui GC-Y, Ng SSS, Zhang F, Li AYL, Lu W, Hui DS-C, et al. 2022. Gut microbiota dynamics in a prospective cohort of patients with post-acute COVID-19 syndrome. Gut. 71(3):544–552.
  • Logue JK, Franko NM, McCulloch DJ, McDonald D, Magedson A, Wolf CR, Chu HY. 2021. Sequelae in adults at 6 months after COVID-19 infection. JAMA Netw Open. 4(2):e210830.
  • Long-term sequelae and COVID-19 – what we know so far 2020. (Accessed March 31, 2021at https://www.publichealthontario.ca/-/media/documents/ncov/covid-wwksf/2020/07/what-we-know-covid-19-long-term-sequelae.pdf?la=en.)
  • Lopez-Leon S, Wegman-Ostrosky T, Perelman C, Sepulveda R, Rebolledo P, Cuapio A, Villapol S. 2021. [Epub ahead of print]. More than 50 long-term effects of COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Res Sq. 11(1):16144.
  • Lu R, Zhao X, Li J, Niu P, Yang B, Wu H, Wang W, Song H, Huang B, Zhu N, et al. 2020. Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding. Lancet. 395(10224):565–574.
  • Mansoor E, Perez A, Abou-Saleh M, Sclair SN, Cohen S, Cooper GS, Mills A, Schlick K, Khan A. 2021. Clinical characteristics, hospitalization, and mortality rates of coronavirus disease 2019 among liver transplant patients in the United States: a multicenter research network study. Gastroenterology. 160(1):459–462 e1.
  • Mantovani A, Morrone MC, Patrono C, Santoro MG, Schiaffino S, Remuzzi G, Bussolati G, Covid-19 Commission of the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei 2022. Long Covid: where we stand and challenges ahead. Cell Death Differ. 29(10):1891–1900.
  • Masonbrink AR, Hurley E. 2020. Advocating for children during the COVID-19 school closures. Pediatrics. 146(3):e20201440.
  • Mastrangelo A, Bonato M, Cinque P. 2021. Smell and taste disorders in COVID-19: from pathogenesis to clinical features and outcomes. Neurosci Lett. 748:135694.
  • Meini S, Suardi LR, Busoni M, Roberts AT, Fortini A. 2020. Olfactory and gustatory dysfunctions in 100 patients hospitalized for COVID-19: sex differences and recovery time in real-life. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 277(12):3519–3523.
  • Menter T, Haslbauer JD, Nienhold R, Savic S, Hopfer H, Deigendesch N, Frank S, Turek D, Willi N, Pargger H, et al. 2020. Postmortem examination of COVID-19 patients reveals diffuse alveolar damage with severe capillary congestion and variegated findings in lungs and other organs suggesting vascular dysfunction. Histopathology. 77(2):198–209.
  • Monje M, Iwasaki A. 2022. The neurobiology of long COVID. Neuron. 110(21):3484–3496.
  • National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE), Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (SIGN), Royal College of General Practitioners (RCGP). COVID-19 rapid guideline: managing the long-term effects of COVID-19 2022.
  • National Institute for Health and Care Excellence: clinical Guidelines 2020. COVID-19 rapid guideline: managing the long-term effects of COVID-19. London: national Institute for Health and Care Excellence (UK) Copyright © NICE 2020.;
  • Newell KL, Waickman AT. 2022. Inflammation, immunity, and antigen persistence in post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infectionImmunity and inflammaion in post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Curr Opin Immunol. 77:102228.
  • Ngai JC, Ko FW, Ng SS, To KW, Tong M, Hui DS. 2010. The long-term impact of severe acute respiratory syndrome on pulmonary function, exercise capacity and health status. Respirology. 15(3):543–550.
  • Nicola M, Alsafi Z, Sohrabi C, Kerwan A, Al-Jabir A, Iosifidis C, Agha M, Agha R. 2020. The socio-economic implications of the coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19): a review. Int J Surg. 78:185–193.
  • Notarte KI, Catahay JA, Velasco JV, Pastrana A, Ver AT, Pangilinan FC, Peligro PJ, Casimiro M, Guerrero JJ, Gellaco MML, et al. 2022. Impact of COVID-19 vaccination on the risk of developing long-COVID and on existing long-COVID symptoms: a systematic review. EClinicalMedicine. 53:101624.
  • Nunez A, Madison M, Schiavo R, Elk R, Prigerson HG. 2020. Responding to healthcare disparities and challenges with access to care during COVID-19. Health Equity. 4(1):117–128.
  • Otte MS, Klussmann JP, Luers JC. 2020. Persisting olfactory dysfunction in patients after recovering from COVID-19. J Infect. 81(3):e58.
  • Paderno A, Mattavelli D, Rampinelli V, Grammatica A, Raffetti E, Tomasoni M, Gualtieri T, Taboni S, Zorzi S, Del Bon F, et al. 2020. Olfactory and gustatory outcomes in COVID-19: a prospective evaluation in nonhospitalized subjects. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 163(6):1144–1149.
  • Palaiodimou L, Stefanou M-I, Katsanos AH, Aguiar de Sousa D, Coutinho JM, Lagiou P, Michopoulos I, Naska A, Giannopoulos S, Vadikolias K, et al. 2021. Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis and thrombotic events after vector-based COVID-19 vaccines: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurology. 97(21):e2136–e47.
  • Parcha V, Malla G, Suri SS, Kalra R, Heindl B, Berra L, Fouad MN, Arora G, Arora P. 2020. Geographic variation in racial disparities in health and coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) mortality. Mayo Clin Proc Innov Qual Outcomes. 4(6):703–716.
  • Parums DV. 2021. Editorial: long COVID, or post-COVID syndrome, and the global impact on health care. Med Sci Monit. 27:e933446.
  • Patel A, Charani E, Ariyanayagam D, Abdulaal A, Denny SJ, Mughal N, Moore LSP. 2020. New-onset anosmia and ageusia in adult patients diagnosed with SARS-CoV-2 infection. Clin Microbiol Infect. 26(9):1236–1241.
  • Patel MA, Knauer MJ, Nicholson M, Daley M, Van Nynatten LR, Martin C, Patterson EK, Cepinskas G, Seney SL, Dobretzberger V, et al. 2022. Elevated vascular transformation blood biomarkers in Long-COVID indicate angiogenesis as a key pathophysiological mechanism. Mol Med. 28(1):122.
  • Pellegrino R, Chiappini E, Licari A, Galli L, Marseglia GL. 2022. Prevalence and clinical presentation of long COVID in children: a systematic review. Eur J Pediatr. 181(12):3995–4009.
  • Poletti S, Palladini M, Mazza MG, De Lorenzo R, Furlan R, Ciceri F, Rovere-Querini P, Benedetti F, COVID-19 BioB Outpatient Clinic Study group 2022. Long-term consequences of COVID-19 on cognitive functioning up to 6 months after discharge: role of depression and impact on quality of life. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 272(5):773–782.
  • Premraj L, Kannapadi NV, Briggs J, Seal SM, Battaglini D, Fanning J, Suen J, Robba C, Fraser J, Cho S-M. 2022. Mid and long-term neurological and neuropsychiatric manifestations of post-COVID-19 syndrome: A meta-analysis. J Neurol Sci. 434:120162.
  • Puntmann VO, Carerj ML, Wieters I, Fahim M, Arendt C, Hoffmann J, Shchendrygina A, Escher F, Vasa-Nicotera M, Zeiher AM, et al. 2020. Outcomes of cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging in patients recently recovered from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). JAMA Cardiol. 5(11):1265–1273.
  • Rowley AH, Shulman ST, Arditi M. 2020. Immune pathogenesis of COVID-19-related multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children. J Clin Invest. 130(11):5619–5621.
  • Salehi S, Reddy S, Gholamrezanezhad A. 2020. Long-term pulmonary consequences of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): what we know and what to expect. J Thorac Imaging. 35(4):W87–W89.
  • Samidoust P, Samidoust A, Samadani AA, Khoshdoz S. 2020. Risk of hepatic failure in COVID-19 patients. A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Infez Med. 28:96–103.
  • Sarıçam E, Dursun AD, Türkmen Sarıyıldız G, Can N, Bozkurt E, Gönüllü U, Basay N, Türkmen M, Denli A, Ünlü M. 2021. Laboratory and imaging evaluation of cardiac involvement in patients with post-acute COVID-19. Int J Gen Med. 14:4977–4985.
  • Sayin I, Yazici ZM. 2020. Taste and smell impairment in SARS-CoV-2 recovers early and spontaneously: experimental data strongly linked to clinical data. ACS Chem Neurosci. 11(14):2031–2033.
  • Schaller T, Hirschbühl K, Burkhardt K, Braun G, Trepel M, Märkl B, Claus R. 2020. Postmortem examination of patients with COVID-19. JAMA. 323(24):2518–2520.
  • Schwab K, Schwitzer E, Qadir N. 2022. Postacute sequelae of COVID-19 critical illness. Crit Care Clin. 38(3):455–472.
  • Segars J, Katler Q, McQueen DB, Kotlyar A, Glenn T, Knight Z, Feinberg EC, Taylor HS, Toner JP, Kawwass JF, et al. 2020. Prior and novel coronaviruses, Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), and human reproduction: what is known? Fertil Steril. 113(6):1140–1149.
  • Serrano-Castro PJ, Estivill-Torrús G, Cabezudo-García P, Reyes-Bueno JA, Ciano Petersen N, Aguilar-Castillo MJ, Suárez-Pérez J, Jiménez-Hernández MD, Moya-Molina MÁ, Oliver-Martos B, et al. 2020. Impact of SARS-CoV-2 infection on neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric diseases: a delayed pandemic? Neurologia (Engl Ed). 35(4):245–251.
  • Shah KS, Hale Hammond ME, Drakos SG, Anderson JL, Fang JC, Knowlton KU, Shaw RM. 2021. SARS-CoV-2 as an inflammatory cardiovascular disease: current knowledge and future challenges. Future Cardiol. 17(7):1277–1291.
  • Shaw B, Daskareh M, Gholamrezanezhad A. 2021. The lingering manifestations of COVID-19 during and after convalescence: update on long-term pulmonary consequences of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Radiol Med. 126(1):40–46.
  • Sigfrid L, Cevik M, Jesudason E, Lim WS, Rello J, Amuasi J, Bozza F, Palmieri C, Munblit D, Holter JC, et al. 2021. What is the recovery rate and risk of long-term consequences following a diagnosis of COVID-19? A harmonised, global longitudinal observational study protocol. BMJ Open. 11(3):e043887.
  • Sigfrid L, Drake TM, Pauley E, Jesudason EC, Olliaro P, Lim WS, Gillesen A, Berry C, Lowe DJ, McPeake J, et al. 2021. Long Covid in adults discharged from UK hospitals after Covid-19: A prospective, multicentre cohort study using the ISARIC WHO Clinical Characterisation Protocol. Lancet Reg Health Eur. 8:100186.
  • Singh-Grewal D, Lucas R, McCarthy K, Cheng AC, Wood N, Ostring G, Britton P, Crawford N, Burgner D. 2020. Update on the COVID-19-associated inflammatory syndrome in children and adolescents; paediatric inflammatory multisystem syndrome-temporally associated with SARS-CoV-2. J Paediatr Child Health. 56(8):1173–1177.
  • Soriano JB, Murthy S, Marshall JC, Relan P, Diaz JV, Condition WHOCCDWGoP-C 2022. A clinical case definition of post-COVID-19 condition by a Delphi consensus. Lancet Infect Dis. 22(4):e102–e7.
  • Ståhlberg M, Reistam U, Fedorowski A, Villacorta H, Horiuchi Y, Bax J, Pitt B, Matskeplishvili S, Lüscher TF, Weichert I, et al. 2021. Post-COVID-19 tachycardia syndrome: a distinct phenotype of post-acute COVID-19 syndrome. Am J Med. 134(12):1451–1456.
  • Stephenson T, Shafran R, Ladhani SN. 2022. Long COVID in children and adolescents. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 35(5):461–467.
  • Study of COVID-19 Risk and Long-Term Effects Underway at 37 U.S. Academic Medical Centers 2021. (Accessed 15 March 2021, at. https://www.cuimc.columbia.edu/news/nationwide-study-covid-19-risk-and-long-term-effects-underway-37-academic-medical-centers.)
  • Sudre CH, Murray B, Varsavsky T, et al. 2020. Attributes and predictors of Long-COVID: analysis of COVID cases and their symptoms collected by the Covid Symptoms Study App. medRxiv 202010.19.20214494.
  • Sudre CH, Murray B, Varsavsky T, Graham MS, Penfold RS, Bowyer RC, Pujol JC, Klaser K, Antonelli M, Canas LS, et al. 2021. Attributes and predictors of long COVID. Nat Med. 27(4):626–631.
  • Suleyman G, Fadel RA, Malette KM, Hammond C, Abdulla H, Entz A, Demertzis Z, Hanna Z, Failla A, Dagher C, et al. 2020. Clinical characteristics and morbidity associated with coronavirus disease 2019 in a series of patients in Metropolitan Detroit. JAMA Netw Open. 3(6):e2012270.
  • Sun P, Wang M, Song T, Wu Y, Luo J, Chen L, Yan L. 2021. The psychological impact of COVID-19 pandemic on health care workers: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Psychol. 12:626547.
  • Szekely Y, Lichter Y, Sadon S, Lupu L, Taieb P, Banai A, Sapir O, Granot Y, Hochstadt A, Friedman S, et al. 2021. Cardiorespiratory abnormalities in patients recovering from coronavirus disease 2019. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 34(12):1273–1284 e9.
  • Tan BKJ, Han R, Zhao JJ, Tan NKW, Quah ESH, Tan CJ-W, Chan YH, Teo NWY, Charn TC, See A, et al. 2022. Prognosis and persistence of smell and taste dysfunction in patients with covid-19: meta-analysis with parametric cure modelling of recovery curves. BMJ. 378:e069503.
  • Taquet M, Dercon Q, Harrison PJ. 2022. Six-month sequelae of post-vaccination SARS-CoV-2 infection: a retrospective cohort study of 10,024 breakthrough infections. Brain Behav Immun. 103:154–162.
  • Taquet M, Dercon Q, Luciano S, Geddes JR, Husain M, Harrison PJ. 2021. Incidence, co-occurrence, and evolution of long-COVID features: a 6-month retrospective cohort study of 273,618 survivors of COVID-19. PLoS Med. 18(9):e1003773.
  • Tenforde MW, Kim SS, Lindsell CJ, Billig Rose E, Shapiro NI, Files DC, Gibbs KW, Erickson HL, Steingrub JS, Smithline HA, et al. 2020. Symptom duration and risk factors for delayed return to usual health among outpatients with COVID-19 in a multistate health care systems network—United States, March–June 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 69(30):993–998.
  • Toubiana J, Poirault C, Corsia A, Bajolle F, Fourgeaud J, Angoulvant F, Debray A, Basmaci R, Salvador E, Biscardi S, et al. 2020. Kawasaki-like multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children during the covid-19 pandemic in Paris, France: prospective observational study. BMJ. 369:m2094.
  • Townsend E. 2020. Debate: the impact of school closures and lockdown on mental health in young people. Child Adolesc Ment Health. 25(4):265–266.
  • Trott M, Driscoll R, Pardhan S. 2022. The prevalence of sensory changes in post-COVID syndrome: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Med (Lausanne). 9:980253.
  • Troyer EA, Kohn JN, Hong S. 2020. Are we facing a crashing wave of neuropsychiatric sequelae of COVID-19? Neuropsychiatric symptoms and potential immunologic mechanisms. Brain Behav Immun. 87:34–39.
  • Truong DT, Trachtenberg FL, Pearson GD, Dionne A, Elias MD, Friedman K, Hayes KH, Mahony L, McCrindle BW, Oster ME, et al. 2022. The NHLBI study on long-term outcomes after the multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MUSIC): design and objectives. Am Heart J. 243:43–53.
  • Van Lancker W, Parolin Z. 2020. COVID-19, school closures, and child poverty: a social crisis in the making. Lancet Public Health. 5(5):e243–e4.
  • Verdecchia P, Cavallini C, Spanevello A, Angeli F. 2020. COVID-19: ACE2centric infective disease? Hypertension. 76(2):294–299.
  • Wang C, Yu C, Jing H, Wu X, Novakovic VA, Xie R, Shi J. 2022. Long COVID: the nature of thrombotic sequelae determines the necessity of early anticoagulation. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 12:861703.
  • WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard 2021. (Accessed February 06, 2023, at. https://covid19.who.int/.)
  • World Health Organization 2020. Report of the WHO-China Joint Mission on Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)
  • Wrona M, Skrypnik D. 2022. New-onset diabetes mellitus, hypertension, dyslipidaemia as sequelae of COVID-19 infection-systematic review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 19(20):13280.
  • Wu X, Liu X, Zhou Y, Yu H, Li R, Zhan Q, Ni F, Fang S, Lu Y, Ding X, et al. 2021. 3-month, 6-month, 9-month, and 12-month respiratory outcomes in patients following COVID-19-related hospitalisation: a prospective study. Lancet Respir Med. 9(7):747–754.
  • Wulf Hanson S, Abbafati C, Aerts JG, Al-Aly Z, Ashbaugh C, Ballouz T, Blyuss O, Bobkova P, Bonsel G, Borzakova S, Global Burden of Disease Long CC, et al. 2022. Estimated global proportions of individuals with persistent fatigue, cognitive, and respiratory symptom clusters following symptomatic COVID-19 in 2020 and 2021. JAMA. 328(16):1604–1615.
  • Xie Y, Bowe B, Al-Aly Z. 2021. Burdens of post-acute sequelae of COVID-19 by severity of acute infection, demographics and health status. Nat Commun. 12(1):6571.
  • Xie Y, Xu E, Bowe B, Al-Aly Z. 2022. Long-term cardiovascular outcomes of COVID-19. Nat Med. 28(3):583–590.
  • Yancy CW, Fonarow GC. 2020. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and the heart-is heart failure the next chapter? JAMA Cardiol. 5(11):1216–1217.
  • Yasmin F, Najeeb H, Naeem A, Dapke K, Phadke R, Asghar MS, Shah SMI, De Berardis D, Ullah I. 2021. COVID-19 associated mucormycosis: a systematic review from diagnostic challenges to management. Diseases. 9(4):65.
  • Yasuhara J, Masuda K, Watanabe K, Shirasu T, Takagi H, Sumitomo N, Lee S, Kuno T. 2023. Longitudinal cardiac outcomes of multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pediatr Cardiol. 44(4):892–907.
  • Yong SJ. 2021. Long COVID or post-COVID-19 syndrome: putative pathophysiology, risk factors, and treatments. Infect Dis (Lond). 53(10):737–754.
  • Yoo SM, Liu TC, Motwani Y, Sim MS, Viswanathan N, Samras N, Hsu F, Wenger NS. 2022. Factors associated with post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 (PASC) after diagnosis of symptomatic COVID-19 in the inpatient and outpatient setting in a diverse cohort. J Gen Intern Med. 37(8):1988–1995.
  • Zhao Y-M, Shang Y-M, Song W-B, Li Q-Q, Xie H, Xu Q-F, Jia J-L, Li L-M, Mao H-L, Zhou X-M, et al. 2020. Follow-up study of the pulmonary function and related physiological characteristics of COVID-19 survivors three months after recovery. EClinicalMedicine. 25:100463.
  • Zhou H, Lu S, Chen J, Wei N, Wang D, Lyu H, Shi C, Hu S. 2020. The landscape of cognitive function in recovered COVID-19 patients. J Psychiatr Res. 129:98–102.