References
- AFP. (2020, April 21). Humans to blame for spread of Covid-19. New Straits Times. https://www.nst.com.my/world/world/2020/04/586361/humans-blame-spread-covid-19
- Andersen, S. M., Glassman, N. S., & Gold, D. A. (1998). Mental representations of the self, significant others, and nonsignificant others: Structure and processing of private and public aspects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(4), 845–861. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.4.845
- Arndt, J., & Goldenberg, J. L. (2017). Where health and death intersect: Insights from a terror management health model. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 26(2), 126–131. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721416689563
- Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. Freeman.
- Bell, R. A., McGlone, M. S., & Dragojevic, M. (2014a). Bacteria as bullies: Effects of linguistic agency assignment in health message. Journal of Health Communication, 19(3), 340–358. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2013.798383
- Bell, R. A., McGlone, M. S., & Dragojevic, M. (2014b). Vicious viruses and vigilant vaccines: Effects of linguistic agency assignment in health policy advocacy. Journal of Health Communication, 19(10), 1178–1195. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2013.811330
- Brehm, J. W. (1966). A theory of psychological reactance. Academic Press.
- CDC. (2020). How to protect yourself & others. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html
- Chen, M., McGlone, M. S., & Bell, R. A. (2015). Persuasive effects of linguistic agency assignments and point of view in narrative health messages about colon cancer. Journal of Health Communication, 20(8), 977–988. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2015.1018625
- Dillard, J. P., & Shen, L. (2005). On the nature of reactance and its role in persuasive health communication. Communication Monographs, 72(2), 144–168. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637750500111815
- Dowty, D. (1991). Thematic proto-roles and argument selection. Language, 67(3), 547–619. https://doi.org/10.1353/lan.1991.0021
- Dragojevic, M., Bell, R. A., & McGlone, M. (2013). Giving radon gas life through language: Effects of linguistic assignment in health messages about inanimate threats. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 33(1), 89–98. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X13495738
- Evans, A. T., Peters, E., Strasser, A. A., Emery, L. F., Sheerin, K. M., & Romer, D. (2015). Graphic warning labels elicit affective and thoughtful responses from smokers: Results of a randomized clinical trial. PloS One, 10(12), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0142879
- Garber, M. (2020, May 27). Refusing to wear a mask is an empty act of defiance. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/culture/archive/2020/05/face-mask-videos-culture-wars-trump-logic/612139/
- Gardner, L., & Leshner, G. (2016). The role of narrative and other-referencing in attenuating psychological reactance to diabetes self-care messages. Health Communication, 31(6), 738–751. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2014.993498
- Gilligan, C. (1982). New maps of development: New visions of maturity. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 52(2), 199–212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.1982.tb02682.x
- Glowacki, E. M., McGlone, M. S., & Bell, R. A. (2016). Targeting Type 2: Linguistic agency assignment in diabetes prevention policy messaging. Journal of Health Communication, 21(4), 457–468. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2015.1095821
- Goldenberg, J. L., & Arndt, J. (2008). The implications of death for health: A terror management health model for behavioral health promotion. Psychological Review, 115(4), 1032–1053. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013326
- Goodall, C., Sabo, J., Cline, R., & Egbert, N. (2012). Threat, efficacy, and uncertainty in the first 5 months of national print and electronic news coverage of the H1N1 virus. Journal of Health Communication, 17(3), 338–355. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2011.626499
- Grandpre, J., Alvaro, E. M., Burgoon, M., Miller, C. H., & Hall, J. R. (2003). Adolescent reactance and anti-smoking campaigns: A theoretical approach. Health Communication, 15(3), 349–366. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327027HC1503_6
- Guttman, N., & Salmon, C. T. (2004). Guilt, fear, stigma and knowledge gaps: Ethical issues in public health communication interventions. Bioethics, 18(6), 531–552. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8519.2004.00415.x
- Hallowell, N. (1999). Doing the right thing: Genetic risk and responsibility. Sociology of Health & Illness, 21(5), 597–621. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9566.00175
- Hovland, C. I., Lumsdaine, A. A., & Sheffield, F. D. (1949). Experiments on mass communication. Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-013-0434-y
- JHCRC. (2020). COVID-19 case tracker. Johns Hopkins Coronavirus Resource Center. https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/
- Krupnikov, Y., & Levine, A. S. (2014). Cross-sample comparisons and external validity. Journal of Experimental Political Science, 1(1), 59–80. https://doi.org/10.1017/xps.2014.7
- LaVoie, N. R., Quick, B. L., Riles, J. M., & Lambert, N. J. (2017). Are graphic cigarette warning labels an effective message strategy? A test of psychological reactance theory and source appraisal. Communication Research, 44(3), 416–436. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650215609669
- Lee, B. Y. (2020, May 10). Anthony Fauci is facing online attacks and COVID-19 coronavirus conspiracy theories. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/brucelee/2020/05/10/anthony-fauci-is-facing-online-attacks-and-covid-19-coronavirus-conspiracy-theories/#2a9e7e4f2318
- Lee, S., & Mackert, M. (2017). “People” can be better than “you”: The moderating role of regulatory focus on self-referencing messages in physical activity promotion campaigns among college students. Health Marketing Quarterly, 34(3), 157–174. https://doi.org/10.1080/07359683.2017.1346429
- Lithwick, D. (2020, May 14). Refusing to wear a mask is a uniquely American pathology. Slate. https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2020/05/masks-coronavirus-america.html
- Loroz, P. S. (2007). The interaction of message frames and reference points in prosocial persuasive appeals. Psychology & Marketing, 24(11), 1001–1023. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.20193
- Lu, H., Siemer, W. F., Baumer, M. S., & Decker, D. J. (2018). Exploring the role of gain versus loss framing and point of reference in messages to reduce human–bear conflicts. The Social Science Journal, 55(2), 182–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2017.05.002
- Ma, H., Miller, C., & Wong, N. (2020). Don’t let the tornado get you! The effects of agency assignment and self-construal on responses to tornado preparedness messages. Health Communication, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2020.1712038
- Mason, A. M., & Miller, C. H. (2016). Potentially deceptive health nutrition–related advertising claims: The role of inoculation in conferring resistance. Health Education Journal, 75(2), 144–157. https://doi.org/10.1177/0017896915569365
- McCroskey, J. C. (1966). Scales for the measurement of ethos. Speech Monographs, 33(1), 65–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637756609375482
- McCroskey, J. C., & Teven, J. J. (1999). Goodwill: A reexamination of the construct and its measurement. Communication Monographs, 66(1), 90–103. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637759909376464
- McGlone, M. S., Bell, R. A., Zaitchik, S. T., & McGlynn, J., III. (2013). Don’t let the flu catch you: Agency assignment in printed educational materials about the H1N1 influenza virus. Journal of Health Communication, 18(6), 740–756. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2012.727950
- Meyers-Levy, J., & Peracchio, L. A. (1996). Moderators of the impact of self-reference on persuasion. Journal of Consumer Research, 22(4), 408–423. https://doi.org/10.1086/209458
- Miller, C. H., Lane, L. T., Deatrick, L. M., Young, A. M., & Potts, K. A. (2007). Psychological reactance and promotional health messages: The effects of controlling language, lexical concreteness, and the restoration of freedom. Human Communication Research, 33(2), 219–240. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2007.00297.x
- Morawska, L., & Cao, J. (2020). Airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2: The world should face the reality. Environment International, 139, 105730. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.105730
- Myrick, J. G. (2019). An experimental test of the roles of audience involvement and message frame in shaping public reactions to celebrity illness disclosures. Health Communication, 34(9), 1060–1068. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2018.1461170
- NYC Health. (2020). Promoting and protecting the city’s health: Covid-19 data. The Official Website of the City of New York. https://www1.nyc.gov/site/doh/covid/covid-19-data.page
- Orjollet, S. (2020, April 21). Humans to blame for spread of coronavirus and other ‘zoonoses’. Medical Xpress. https://medicalxpress.com/news/2020-04-humans-blame-coronavirus-zoonoses.html
- Peer, E., Vosgerau, J., & Acquisti, A. (2014). Reputation as a sufficient condition for data quality on Amazon Mechanical Turk. Behavior Research Methods, 46(4), 1023–1031. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-013-0434-y
- Petersen, A., & Lupton, D. (1996). The new public health: Health and self in the age of risk. Sage Publications, Inc.
- Quick, B. L., & Bates, B. R. (2010). The use of gain-or loss-frame messages and efficacy appeals to dissuade excessive alcohol consumption among college students: A test of psychological reactance theory. Journal of Health Communication, 15(6), 603–628. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2010.499593
- Quick, B. L., LaVoie, N. R., Reynolds-Tylus, T., Martinez-Gonzalez, A., & Skurka, C. (2018). Examining mechanisms underlying fear-control in the extended parallel process model. Health Communication, 33(4), 379–391. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2016.1266738
- Rains, S. A., & Turner, M. M. (2007). Psychological reactance and persuasive health communication: A test and extension of the intertwined model. Human Communication Research, 33(2), 241–269. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2007.00298.x
- Roberto, A. J., Goodall, C. E., & Witte, K. (2009). Raising the alarm and calming fears: Perceived threat and efficacy during risk and crisis. In R. Heath & D. O’Hair (Eds.), Handbook of risk and crisis communication (pp. 287–303). Routledge.
- Rose, J. (2020, April 20). Protesters across the country demand COVID-19 restrictions be lifted. NPR News. https://www.npr.org/2020/04/20/838297652/protesters-across-the-country-demand-covid-19-restrictions-be-lifted
- Ruiter, R. A., Verplanken, B., Kok, G., & Werrij, M. Q. (2003). The role of coping appraisal in reactions to fear appeals: Do we need threat information? Journal of Health Psychology, 8(4), 465–474. https://doi.org/10.1177/13591053030084006
- Sandoiu, A. (2020, May 19). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on older adults. Medical News Today. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/the-impact-of-the-covid-19-pandemic-on-older-adults#Old-age-and-preexisting-health-conditions
- Schmidt, A. M., Ranney, L. M., Pepper, J. K., & Goldstein, A. O. (2016). Source credibility in tobacco control messaging. Tobacco Regulatory Science, 2(1), 31–37. https://doi.org/10.18001/TRS.2.1.3
- Shepperd, J. A., Klein, W. M., Waters, E. A., & Weinstein, N. D. (2013). Taking stock of unrealistic optimism. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(4), 395–411. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691613485247
- Silvia, P. J. (2006). Reactance and the dynamics of disagreement: Multiple paths from threatened freedom to resistance to persuasion. European Journal of Social Psychology, 36(5), 673–685. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.309
- Strasser, A. A., Tang, K. Z., Romer, D., Jepson, C., & Cappella, J. N. (2012). Graphic warning labels in cigarette advertisements: Recall and viewing patterns. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 43(1), 41–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2012.02.026
- Thaler, J., & Helmig, B. (2013). Promoting good behavior: Does social and temporal framing make a difference? Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 24(4), 1006–1036. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-012-9293-x
- Vesoulis, A. (2020, March 11). Coronavirus may disproportionately hurt the poor—And that’s bad for everyone. TIME. https://time.com/5800930/how-coronavirus-will-hurt-the-poor/
- Wansink, B., & Pope, L. (2015). When do gain-framed health messages work better than fear appeals? Nutrition Reviews, 73(1), 4–11. https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuu010
- Wilson, M. (2020, June 11). Why are so many N.Y.P.D. officers refusing to wear masks at protests? The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/11/nyregion/nypd-face-masks-nyc-protests.html
- Wise, A. (2020, May 13). Trump accuses Dr. Fauci of wanting to ‘play all sides’ on reopening. NPR News. https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus-live-updates/2020/05/13/855736912/trump-accuses-dr-fauci-of-wanting-to-play-all-sides-on-reopening
- Witte, K. (1994). Fear control and danger control: A test of the extended parallel process model (EPPM). Communication Monographs, 61(2), 113–134. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637759409376328
- Witte, K., Ferrera, M., & Smith, R. (2005, May). Social sides of health risks: Stigma and collective efficacy. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Communication Association, New York, NY.
- Worchel, S., & Brehm, J. W. (1970). Effect of threats to attitudinal freedom as a function of agreement with the communicator. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 14(1), 18–22. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0028620