I Will Get Myself Vaccinated for Others: The Interplay of Message Frame, Reference Point, and Perceived Risk on Intention for COVID-19 Vaccine

References

• Aaker, J. L., & Lee, A. Y. (2001). “I” seek pleasures and “we” avoid pains: The role of self-regulatory goals in information processing and persuasion. Journal of Consumer Research, 28(1), 33–49. https://doi.org/10.1086/321946
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brenan, M. (2021). In U.S., more worry about vaccine demand than supply. Gallup. https://news.gallup.com/poll/349529/worry-vaccine-demand-supply.aspx.
   Google Scholar
• Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021a). COVID Data Tracker. Retrieved February 5, 2021, from https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#datatracker-home
   Google Scholar
• Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021b). Science brief: COVID-19 vaccines and vaccination. Retrieved May 30, 2021, from https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/science/science-briefs/fully-vaccinated-people.html
   Google Scholar
• Cox, A. D., Cox, D., & Zimet, G. (2006). Understanding consumer responses to product risk information. Journal of Marketing, 70(1), 79–91. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkg.70.1.079.qxd
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Debevec, K., & Romeo, J. B. (1992). Self-referent processing in perceptions of verbal and visual commercial information. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 1(1), 83–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1057-7408(08)80046-0
   Google Scholar
• Dunning, D., Heath, C., & Suls, J. M. (2004). Flawed self-assessment: Implications for health, education, and the workplace. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 5(3), 69–106. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1529-1006.2004.00018.x
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ferguson, E., & Gallagher, L. (2007). Message framing with respect to decisions about vaccination: The roles of frame valence, frame method and perceived risk. British Journal of Psychology, 98(4), 667–680. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712607X190692
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisher, K. A., Bloomstone, S. J., Walder, J., Crawford, S., Fouayzi, H., & Mazor, K. M. (2020). Attitudes toward a potential SARS-CoV-2 vaccine: A survey of US adults. Annals of Internal Medicine, 173(12), 964–973. https://doi.org/10.7326/M20-3569
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gallagher, K. M., & Updegraff, J. A. (2012). Health message framing effects on attitudes, intentions, and behavior: A meta-analytic review. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 43(1), 101–116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-011-9308-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerend, M. A., & Shepherd, J. E. (2007). Using message framing to promote acceptance of the human papillomavirus vaccine. Health Psychology, 26(6), 745–752. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.26.6.745
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerend, M. A., Shepherd, J. E., & Monday, K. A. (2008). Behavioral frequency moderates the effects of message framing on HPV vaccine acceptability. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 35(2), 221–229. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-008-9024-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grant, A. M., & Hofmann, D. A. (2011). It’s not all about me: Motivating hand hygiene among health care professionals by focusing on patients. Psychological Science, 22(12), 1494–1499. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611419172
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griffin, R. J., Dunwoody, S., & Yang, Z. J. (2013). Linking risk messages to information seeking and processing. Annals of the International Communication Association, 36(1), 323–362. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2013.11679138
   Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F. (2018). Partial, conditional, and moderated moderated mediation: Quantification, inference, and interpretation. Communication Monographs, 85(1), 4–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2017.1352100
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higgins, E. T. (1998). Promotion and prevention: Regulatory focus as a motivational principle. Academic Press, 30, 1–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60381-0
   Google Scholar
• Higgins, E. T. (2005). Value from regulatory fit. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14(4), 209–213. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00366.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hull, S. J. (2012). Perceived risk as a moderator of the effectiveness of framed HIV-test promotion messages among women: A randomized controlled trial. Health Psychology, 31(1), 114–121. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024702
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hull, S. J., & Hong, Y. (2016). Sensation seeking as a moderator of gain- and loss-framed HIV-test promotion message effects. Journal of Health Communication, 21(1), 46–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2015.1033113
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jolley, D., & Douglas, K. M. (2014). The effects of anti-vaccine conspiracy theories on vaccination intentions. PLoS ONE, 9(2), e89177. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089177
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuiper, N. A., & Rogers, T. B. (1979). Encoding of personal information: Self–other differences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(4), 499–514. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.37.4.499
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laine, C., Cotton, D., & Moyer, D. V. (2020). COVID-19 vaccine: Promoting vaccine acceptance. Annals of Internal Medicine, 174(2), 252–253. https://doi.org/10.7326/M20-8008
   Google Scholar
• Lee, A. Y., & Aaker, J. L. (2004). Bringing the frame into focus: The influence of regulatory fit on processing fluency and persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(2), 205–218. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.86.2.205
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin, I. P., & Gaeth, G. J. (1988). How consumers are affected by the framing of attribute information before and after consuming the product. Journal of Consumer Research, 15(3), 374–378. https://doi.org/10.1086/209174
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin, I. P., Schneider, S. L., & Gaeth, G. J. (1998). All frames are not created equal: A typology and critical analysis of framing effects. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 76(2), 149–188. https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1998.2804
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin, C. A. (2021). A year like no other: A call to curb the infodemic and depoliticize a pandemic crisis. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 64(5), 661–671. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2020.1871185
   Google Scholar
• Liu, L., Xie, J., Li, K., & Ji, S. (2020). Exploring how media influence preventive behavior and excessive preventive intention during the COVID-19 pandemic in China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(21), 7990. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17217990
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lord, C. G. (1980). Schemas and images as memory aids: Two modes of processing social information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38(2), 257–269. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.38.2.257
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loroz, P. S. (2007). The interaction of message frames and reference points in prosocial persuasive appeals. Psychology & Marketing, 24(11), 1001–1023. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.20193
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ma, H., & Miller, C. H. (2021). The effects of agency assignment and reference point on responses to COVID-19 messages. Health Communication, 36(1), 59–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2020.1848066
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maheswaran, D., & Meyers-Levy, J. (1990). The influence of message framing and issue involvement. Journal of Marketing Research, 27(3), 361–367. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224379002700310
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyerowitz, B. E., & Chaiken, S. (1987). The effect of message framing on breast self-examination attitudes, intentions, and behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(3), 500–510. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.500
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monod, M., Blenkinsop, A., Xi, X., Hebert, D., Bershan, S., Tietze, S., Baguelin, M., Bradley, V., Chen, Y., Coupland, H., Filippi, S., Ish-Horowicz, J., McManus, M., Mellan, T., Gandy, A., Hutchinson, M., Unwin, H., Elsland, S., Vollmer, M., Zhu, H., … Ratmann, O. (2021). Age groups that sustain resurging COVID-19 epidemics in the United States. Science, 371(6536), eabe8372. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abe8372
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nan, X. (2012). Relative persuasiveness of gain- versus loss-framed human papillomavirus vaccination messages for the present- and future-minded. Human Communication Research, 38(1), 72–94. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2011.01419.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nan, X., & Madden, K. (2014). The role of cultural worldviews and message framing in shaping public opinions toward the human papillomavirus vaccination mandate. Human Communication Research, 40(1), 30–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/hcre.12016
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nan, X., Madden, K., Richards, A., Holt, C., Wang, M. Q., & Tracy, K. (2016). Message framing, perceived susceptibility, and intentions to vaccinate children against HPV among African American parents. Health Communication, 31(7), 798–805. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2015.1005280
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nan, X., Xie, B., & Madden, K. (2012). Acceptability of the H1N1 vaccine among older adults: The interplay of message framing and perceived vaccine safety and efficacy. Health Communication, 27(6), 559–568. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2011.617243
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Institutes of Health. (2020). NIH releases report summarizing research on vaccine communication. Retrieved December 14, 2020, from https://obssr.od.nih.gov/news-and-events/news/director-voice/nih-releases-report-summarizing-research-vaccine-communication
   Google Scholar
• Neergaard, L., & Fingerhut, H. (2020, December 10). AP-NORC poll: Only half in US want shots as vaccine nears. AP News. https://apnews.com/article/ap-norc-poll-us-half-want-vaccine-shots-4d98dbfc0a64d60d52ac84c3065dac55
   Google Scholar
• O’Keefe, D. J., & Jensen, J. D. (2006). The advantages of compliance or the disadvantages of noncompliance? A meta-analytic review of the relative persuasive effectiveness of gain-framed and loss-framed messages. Annals of the International Communication Association, 30(1), 1–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2006.11679054
   Google Scholar
• O’Keefe, D. J., & Jensen, J. D. (2007). The relative persuasiveness of gain-framed loss-framed messages for encouraging disease prevention behaviors: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Health Communication, 12(7), 623–644. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730701615198
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Keefe, D. J., & Jensen, J. D. (2009). The relative persuasiveness of gain-framed and loss-framed messages for encouraging disease detection behaviors: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Communication, 59(2), 296–316. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2009.01417.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Keefe, D. J., & Nan, X. (2012). The relative persuasiveness of gain- and loss-framed messages for promoting vaccination: A meta-analytic review. Health Communication, 27(8), 776–783. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2011.640974
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Penţa, M. A., & Băban, A. (2018). Message framing in vaccine communication: A systematic review of published literature. Health Communication, 33(3), 299–314. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2016.1266574
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petter, E., Mor, O., Zuckerman, N., Oz-Levi, D., Younger, A., Aran, D., & Erlich, Y. (2021). Initial real world evidence for lower viral load of individuals who have been vaccinated by BNT162b2. MedRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2021.02.08.21251329
   Google Scholar
• Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. In R. E. Petty & J. T. Cacioppo (Eds.), Communication and Persuasion (pp. 1–24). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-4964-1_1
   Google Scholar
• Reinhart, A. M., Marshall, H. M., Feeley, T. H., & Tutzauer, F. (2007). The persuasive effects of message framing in organ donation: The mediating role of psychological reactance. Communication Monographs, 74(2), 229–255. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637750701397098
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogers, T. B., Kuiper, N. A., & Kirker, W. S. (1977). Self-reference and the encoding of personal information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35(9), 677. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.35.9.677
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogers, T. B., Rogers, P. J., & Kuiper, N. A. (1979). Evidence for the self as a cognitive prototype: “The false alarms effect”. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 5(1), 53–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/014616727900500111
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothman, A. J., & Updegraff, J. A. (2010). Specifying when and how gain- and loss-framed messages motivate healthy behavior: An integrated approach. In G. Keren (Ed.), Perspectives on framing (pp. 257–278). Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rothman, A. J., Gollwitzer, P. M., Grant, A. M., Neal, D. T., Sheeran, P., & Wood, W. (2015). Hale and hearty policies: How psychological science can create and maintain healthy habits. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(6), 701–705. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691615598515
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothman, A. J., Martino, S. C., Bedell, B. T., Detweiler, J. B., & Salovey, P. (1999). The systematic influence of gain-and loss-framed messages on interest in and use of different types of health behavior. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 25(11), 1355–1369. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167299259003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothman, A. J., & Salovey, P. (1997). Shaping perceptions to motivate healthy behavior: the role of message framing. Psychological Bulletin, 121(1), 3–19. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.121.1.3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saad, L. (2021, January 12). U.S. readiness to get COVID-19 vaccine steadies at 65%. Gallup. https://news.gallup.com/poll/328415/readiness-covid-vaccine-steadies.aspx.
   Google Scholar
• Sedikides, C., & Green, J. D. (2000). On the self-protective nature of inconsistency-negativity management: Using the person memory paradigm to examine self-referent memory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(6), 906–922. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.6.906
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Segev, S., Fernandes, J., & Wang, W. (2015). The effects of gain versus loss message framing and point of reference on consumer responses to green advertising. Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising, 36(1), 35–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/10641734.2014.912600
   Google Scholar
• Symons, C. S., & Johnson, B. T. (1997). The self-reference effect in memory: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 121(3), 371. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.121.3.371
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thaler, J., & Helmig, B. (2013). Promoting good behavior: Does social and temporal framing make a difference? Voluntas. VOLUNTAS: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 24(4), 1006–1036. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-012-9293-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1981). The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice. Science, 211(4481), 453–458. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.7455683
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van’t Riet, J., Cox, A. D., Cox, D., Zimet, G. D., De Bruijn, G. J., Van den Putte, B., De Vries, H., Werrij, M. Q., & Ruiter, R. A. (2014). Does perceived risk influence the effects of message framing? A new investigation of a widely held notion. Psychology & Health, 29(8), 933–949. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2014.896916
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu, N., & Shen, F. (2013). Benefits for me or risks for others: A cross-culture investigation of the effects of message frames and cultural appeals. Health Communication, 28(2), 133–145. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2012.662147
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar