How Exposure to Online Parenting Content Relates to Mothers’ Self-Discrepancy and Postpartum Mental Health

References

• Alarcón, M. (2018, January). The dangerous cult of “perfect motherhood.” Revista Ya, El Mercurio (Chile). https://www.smith.edu/president-kathleen-mccartney/speeches-media/dangerous-cult-perfect-motherhood
   Google Scholar
• Alexander, M., & Higgins, E. (1993). Emotional trade-offs of becoming a parent: How social roles influence self-discrepancy effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(6), 1259–1269. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.65.6.1259
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bissell, K., & Rask, A. (2010). Real women on real beauty: Self-discrepancy, internalization of the thin ideal, and perceptions of attractiveness and thinness in Dove’s Campaign for Real Beauty. International Journal of Advertising, 29(4), 643–668. https://doi.org/10.2501/s0265048710201385
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buunk, B. P., Collins, R. L., Taylor, S. E., VanYperen, N. W., & Dakof, G. A. (1990). The affective consequences of social comparison: Either direction has its ups and downs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(6), 1238–1249. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.6.1238
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buunk, A. P., & Gibbons, F. X. (2007). Social comparison: The end of a theory and the emergence of a field. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 102(1), 3–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2006.09.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byrne, B. M. (2010). Structural equation modeling with AMOS. Taylor & Francis Group.
   Google Scholar
• Caldwell, J., Meredith, P., Whittingham, K., & Ziviani, J. (2021). Shame and guilt in the postnatal period: A systematic review. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 39(1), 67–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/02646838.2020.1754372
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cao, L. (2018a). Mama jiaolv youxie shiqing genben zuobudao? [Mothers worry that something cannot be done at all?]. Life Weekly. http://m.lifeweek.com.cn/h5/article/detail.do?artId=33056
   Google Scholar
• Cao, L. (2018b). Wanmei muqin jiasuo [The shackles of perfect mother]. Life Weekly. http://m.lifeweek.com.cn/h5/article/detail.do?artId=33057
   Google Scholar
• Capodilupo, C. M. (2015). One size does not fit all: Using variables other than the thin ideal to understand Black women’s body image. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 21(2), 268–278. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037649
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chae, J. (2015). Am I a better mother than you? Communication Research, 42(4), 503–525. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650214534969
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan, C. Y., Lee, A. M., Lam, S. K., Lee, C. P., Leung, K. Y., Koh, Y. W., & Tang, C. S. K. (2013). Antenatal anxiety in the first trimester: Risk factors and effects on anxiety and depression in the third trimester and 6-week postpartum. Open Journal of Psychiatry, 3(3), 301–310. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojpsych.2013.33030
   Google Scholar
• Chee, C. Y. I., Lee, D. T. S., Chong, Y. S., Tan, L. K., Ng, T. P., & Fones, C. S. L. (2005). Confinement and other psychosocial factors in perinatal depression: A transcultural study in Singapore. Journal of Affective Disorders, 89(1–3), 157–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2005.09.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng, C. Y., & Pickler, R. H. (2009). Effects of stress and social support on postpartum health of Chinese mothers in the United States. Research in Nursing & Health, 32(6), 582–591. https://doi.org/10.1002/nur.20356
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chia, S. C. (2006). How peers mediate media influence on adolescents’ sexual attitudes and sexual behavior. The Journal of Communication, 56(3), 585–606. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00302.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collins, R. L. (1996). For better or worse: The impact of upward social comparison on self-evaluations. Psychological Bulletin, 119(1), 51–69. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.119.1.51
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cox, J. L., Holdenand, J. M., & Sagovsky, R. (1987). Detection of postnatal depression development of the 10-item Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. British Journal of Psychiatry, 150(6), 782–786. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.150.6.782
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coyne, S. M., Liechty, T., Collier, K. M., Sharp, A. D., Davis, E. J., & Kroff, S. L. (2018). The effect of media on body image in pregnant and postpartum women. Health Communication, 33(7), 793–799. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2017.1314853
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coyne, S. M., McDaniel, B. T., & Stockdale, L. A. (2017). “Do you dare to compare?” Associations between maternal social comparisons on social networking sites and parenting, mental health, and romantic relationship outcomes. Computers in Human Behavior, 70, 335–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.12.081
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cramer, E. M., Song, H., & Drent, A. M. (2016). Social comparison on Facebook: Motivation, affective consequences, self-esteem, and Facebook fatigue. Computers in Human Behavior, 64, 739–746. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.07.049
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dennis, C. L. E. (2006). Identifying predictors of breastfeeding self-efficacy in the immediate postpartum period. Research in Nursing & Health, 29(4), 256–268. https://doi.org/10.1002/nur.20140
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Douglas, S. J., & Michaels, M. W. (2004). The mommy myth: The idealization of motherhood and how it has undermined all women. Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Dunford, E., & Granger, C. (2017). Maternal guilt and shame: Relationship to postnatal depression and attitudes towards help-seeking. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(6), 1692–1701. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0690-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eveland, W. P., Nathanson, A. I., Detenber, B. H., & McLeod, D. M. (1999). Rethinking the social distance corollary. Communication Research, 26(3), 275–302. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365099026003001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fawcett, E. J., Fairbrother, N., Cox, M. L., White, I. R., & Fawcett, J. M. (2019). The prevalence of anxiety disorders during pregnancy and the postpartum period. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 80(4), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.18r12527
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7(2), 117–140. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.106.2.231
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gao, H. J. (2014). Dazhong chuanmei de “lama” huayu shengchan [The production of “Hot mom” discourse in mass media]. Xinwen Zhishi, 7, 79–81.
   Google Scholar
• Gao, L., Chan, S. W. C., & Mao, Q. (2009). Depression, perceived stress, and social support among first-time Chinese mothers and fathers in the postpartum period. Research in Nursing & Health, 32(1), 50–58. https://doi.org/10.1002/nur.20306
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gao, L., Chan, S. W., You, L., & Li, X. (2010). Experiences of postpartum depression among first-time mothers in mainland China. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 66(2), 303–312. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2009.05169.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibbons, F. X., & Buunk, B. P. (1999). Individual differences in social comparison: Development of a scale of social comparison orientation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(1), 129–142. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.1.129
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gjesfjeld, C. D., Greeno, C. G., & Kim, K. H. (2008). A confirmatory factor analysis of an abbreviated social support instrument: The MOS-SSS. Research on Social Work Practice, 18(3), 231–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731507309830
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Government of Western Australia. (2006). Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS): Translated versions – validated. https://www.dchealthcheck.net/documents/10-2015-EPDS-Translations.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Grace, S. L., Evindar, A., & Stewart, D. E. (2003). The effect of postpartum depression on child cognitive development and behavior: A review and critical analysis of the literature. Archives of Women’s Mental Health, 6(4), 263–274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-003-0024-6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gunther, A. C. (1998). The persuasive press inference. Communication Research, 25(5), 486–504. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365098025005002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gunther, A. C., & Storey, J. D. (2003). The influence of presumed influence. The Journal of Communication, 53(2), 199–215. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2003.tb02586.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hardin, E. E., & Lakin, J. L. (2009). The integrated self-discrepancy index: A reliable and valid measure of self-discrepancies. Journal of Personality Assessment, 91(3), 245–253. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223890902794291
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F. (2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Henderson, A., Harmon, S., & Newman, H. (2016). The price mothers pay, even when they are not buying it: Mental health consequences of idealized motherhood. Sex Roles, 74(11–12), 512–526. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-015-0534-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-Discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94(3), 319–340. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.94.3.319
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Highet, N., Stevenson, A. L., Purtell, C., & Coo, S. (2014). Qualitative insights into women’s personal experiences of perinatal depression and anxiety. Women and Birth, 27(3), 179–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wombi.2014.05.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holbert, R. L., & Stephenson, M. T. (2008). Commentary on the uses and misuses of structural equation modeling in communication research. In A. F. Hayes, M. D. Slater, & L. B. Snyder (Eds.), The Sage sourcebook of advanced data analysis methods for communication research (pp. 185–218). Sage Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452272054.n7
   Google Scholar
• Howard, M. C. (n.d.). Sobel test formula for serial mediation/sequential mediation. https://mattchoward.com/sobel-test-formula-for-serial-mediation-sequential-mediation/
   Google Scholar
• Hu, Z., Wang, Q., Zhu, J., & Shi, M. (2017). Yunchanfu chanhou jiaolv yiyu qingxu de xiangguan yinsu tantao [Exploring related factors of postpartum anxiety and depression in pregnant women and puerperas]. Zhongguo Fuyou Baojian, 32(8), 1624–1626.
   Google Scholar
• Jolley, S. N., & Betrus, P. (2007). Comparing postpartum depression and major depressive disorder: Issues in assessment. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 28(7), 765–780. https://doi.org/10.1080/01612840701413590
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jondle, J. (2019). What you need to know about postpartum anxiety. Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/health/pregnancy/postpartum-anxiety
   Google Scholar
• Klainin, P., & Arthur, D. G. (2009). Postpartum depression in Asian cultures: A literature review. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 46(10), 1355–1373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2009.02.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knobloch-Westerwick, S. (2015). Thinspiration: Self-improvement versus self-evaluation social comparisons with thin-ideal media portrayals. Health Communication, 30(11), 1089–1101. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2014.921270
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kornstein, S. G., & Clayton, A. H. (2004). Women’s mental health: A comprehensive textbook. Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lang, L. (2008). Big brother meets the “Alpha Mom”: Tensions in the media standardization of motherhood. Lore, 6(2), 1–12. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.560.4270&rep=rep1&type=pdf
   Google Scholar
• Leahy-Warren, P., Mccarthy, G., & Corcoran, P. (2012). First-Time mothers: Social support, maternal parental self-efficacy and postnatal depression. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 21(3–4), 388–397. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2702.2011.03701.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liss, M., Schiffrin, H. H., & Rizzo, K. M. (2013). Maternal guilt and shame: The role of self-discrepancy and fear of negative evaluation. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22(8), 1112–1119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-012-9673-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Littler, J. (2013). The rise of the “Yummy Mummy”: Popular conservatism and the neoliberal maternal in contemporary British culture. Communication, Culture & Critique, 6(2), 227–243. https://doi.org/10.1111/cccr.12010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marschall, D. E., Sanftner, J., & Tangney, J. P. (1994). The state shame and guilt scale. George Mason University.
   Google Scholar
• Marteau, T. M., & Bekker, H. (1992). The development of a six-item short-form of the state scale of the Spielberger State—Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 31(3), 301–306. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8260.1992.tb00997.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mason, T. B., Smith, K. E., Engwall, A., Lass, A., Mead, M., Sorby, M., Bjorlie, K., Strauman, T. J., & Wonderlich, S. (2019). Self-Discrepancy theory as a transdiagnostic framework: A meta-analysis of self-discrepancy and psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin, 145(4), 372–389. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000186
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mauthner, N. S. (1998). “It’s a woman’s cry for help”: A relational perspective on postnatal depression. Feminism & Psychology, 8(3), 325–355. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353598083006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McIntyre, K. P., & Eisenstadt, D. (2011). Social comparison as a self-regulatory measuring stick. Self and Identity, 10(2), 137–151. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298861003676529
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Midgley, C., Thai, S., Lockwood, P., Kovacheff, C., & Page-Gould, E. (2021). When every day is a high school reunion: Social media comparisons and self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 121(2), 285–307. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000336
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Hara, M. W., & McCabe, J. E. (2013). Postpartum depression: Current status and future directions. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 9(1), 379–407. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185612
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ozgul, S., Heubeck, B., Ward, J., & Wilkinson, R. (2003). Self-Discrepancies: Measurement and relation to various negative affective states. Australian Journal of Psychology, 55(1), 56–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049530412331312884
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, S.-Y. (2005). The influence of presumed media influence on women’s desire to be thin. Communication Research, 32(5), 594–614. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650205279350
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pierce, K. M., Strauman, T. J., & Vandell, D. L. (1999). Self-Discrepancy, negative life events, and social support in relation to dejection in mothers of infants. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 18(4), 490–501. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.1999.18.4.490
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polasky, L. J., & Holahan, C. K. (1998). Maternal self-discrepancies, interrole conflict, and negative affect among married professional women with children. Journal of Family Psychology, 12(3), 388–401. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.12.3.388
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Razurel, C., & Kaiser, B. (2015). The role of satisfaction with social support on the psychological health of primiparous mothers in the perinatal period. Women & Health, 55(2), 167–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/03630242.2014.979969
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Razurel, C., Kaiser, B., Antonietti, J. P., Epiney, M., & Sellenet, C. (2017). Relationship between perceived perinatal stress and depressive symptoms, anxiety, and parental self-efficacy in primiparous mothers and the role of social support. Women & Health, 57(2), 154–172. https://doi.org/10.1080/03630242.2016.1157125
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Righetti-Veltema, M., Conne-Perréard, E., Bousquet, A., & Manzano, J. (2002). Postpartum depression and mother-infant relationship at 3 months old. Journal of Affective Disorders, 70(3), 291–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-0327(01)00367-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robertson, E., Grace, S., Wallington, T., & Stewart, D. E. (2004). Antenatal risk factors for postpartum depression: A synthesis of recent literature. General Hospital Psychiatry, 26(4), 289–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2004.02.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson, M. J., & Knobloch-Westerwick, S. (2020). Seeking inspiration through health testimonials: Improving mothers’ self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and behavior in handling children’s sleep behavior. Health Communication, 35(12), 1455–1465. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2019.1652065
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sacks, A. (2017). The birth of a mother. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/08/well/family/the-birth-of-a-mother.html
   Google Scholar
• Shen, Y. F. (2014). Lama: Getihua jincheng zhong muzhi yu nvquan [Hot mom: The motherhood and feminism in the process of individualization]. Nanjing Shehui Kexue, 2, 69–76.
   Google Scholar
• Solomon-Krakus, S., Sabiston, C. M., Brunet, J., Castonguay, A. L., Maximova, K., & Henderson, M. (2017). Body image self-discrepancy and depressive symptoms among early adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 60(1), 38–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.08.024
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart, D. E., Robertson, F. E., Dennis, C.-L., Grace, S. L., & Wallington, T. (2003). Postpartum depression: Literature review of risk factors and interventions. https://www.who.int/mental_health/prevention/suicide/lit_review_postpartum_depression.pdf?ua=1
   Google Scholar
• Sutherland, J.-A. (2010). Mothering, guilt and shame. Sociology Compass, 4(5), 310–321. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9020.2010.00283.x
   Google Scholar
• Tang, L., Zhang, X., & Zhu, R. (2021). What causes postpartum depression and how to cope with it: A phenomenological study of mothers in China. Health Communication, 36(12), 1495–1504. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2020.1771063
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang, L., Zhu, R., & Zhang, X. (2016). Postpartum depression and social support in China: A cultural perspective. Journal of Health Communication, 21(9), 1055–1061. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2016.1204384
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tangney, J. P., Covert, M. V., Barlow, D. H., & Niedenthal, P. M. (1998). Are shame and guilt related to distinct self-discrepancies? A test of Higgins’s (1987) hypotheses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(1), 256–268. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.256
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., & Mashek, D. J. (2007). Moral emotions and moral behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 58(1), 345–372. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor, S. E. (2011). Social support: A review. In H. S. Friedman (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of health psychology (pp. 189–214). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Taylor, A. B., MacKinnon, D. P., & Tein, J.-Y. (2008). Tests of the three-path mediated effect. Organizational Research Methods, 11(2), 241–269. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428107300344
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teissedre, F., & Chabol, H. (2003). Postnatal depression: A study of the predictive effects of postnatal anxiety. Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine, 20(4), 111–114. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0790966700007898
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tiggemann, M., & McGill, B. (2004). The role of social comparison in the effect of magazine advertisements on women’s mood and body dissatisfaction. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23(1), 23–44. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.23.1.23.26991
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tracy, J. L., & Robins, R. W. (2006). Appraisal antecedents of shame and guilt: Support for a theoretical model. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(10), 1339–1351. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167206290212
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willis, L. E., & Knobloch-Westerwick, S. (2014). Weighing women down: Messages on weight loss and body shaping in editorial content in popular women’s health and fitness magazines. Health Communication, 29(4), 323–331. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2012.755602
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wills, T. A. (1991). Social support and interpersonal relationships. In M. S. Clark (Ed.), Review of personality and social psychology (Vol. 12, pp. 265–289). Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Xie, R., He, G., Koszycki, D., Walker, M., & Wen, S. W. (2009). Prenatal social support, postnatal social support, and postpartum depression. Annals of Epidemiology, 19(9), 637–643. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2009.03.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xie, R., Liao, S., Xie, H., Guo, Y., Walker, M., & Wen, S. W. (2011). Infant sex, family support and postpartum depression in a Chinese cohort. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 65(8), 722–726. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.2009.096651
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar