Advocating for Mask-Wearing Across the Aisle: Applying Moral Reframing in Health Communication

References

• Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson, C., & Hobolt, S. (2020, November 18). No partisan divide in willingness to wear masks in the UK. LSE COVID-19. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/covid19/2020/11/18/no-partisan-divide-in-willingness-to-wear-masks-in-the-uk/
   Google Scholar
• Bird, R., & Ritter, Z. (2020, June 23). Is the media creating division on COVID-19 health practices? Gallup. https://news.gallup.com/poll/312749/media-creating-division-covid-health-practices.aspx
   Google Scholar
• Blagov, P. S. (2021). Adaptive and dark personality in the COVID-19 pandemic: Predicting health-behavior endorsement and the appeal of public-health messages. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 12(5), 697–707. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550620936439
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boykin, K., Brown, M., Macchione, A. L., Drea, K. M., & Sacco, D. F. (2021). Noncompliance with masking as a coalitional signal to US conservatives in a pandemic. Evolutionary Psychological Science, 7(3), 232–238. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40806-021-00277-x
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brady, W. J., Wills, J. A., Jost, J. T., Tucker, J. A., & Bavel, J. J. V. (2017). Emotion shapes the diffusion of moralized content in social networks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(28), 7313–7318. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1618923114
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byrne, S., & Hart, P. S. (2009). The boomerang effect: A synthesis of findings and a preliminary theoretical framework. Annals of the International Communication Association, 33(1), 3–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2009.11679083
   Google Scholar
• Clark, J. K., Wegener, D. T., & Fabrigar, L. R. (2008). Attitude accessibility and message processing: The moderating role of message position. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44(2), 354–361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2006.12.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clifford, S., Jewell, R. M., & Waggoner, P. D. (2015). Are samples drawn from Mechanical Turk valid for research on political ideology? Research & Politics, 2(4), 2053168015622072. https://doi.org/10.1177/2053168015622072
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conlin, J., Baker, M., Zhang, B., Shoenberger, H., & Shen, F. (in press). Facing the strain: The persuasive effects of conversion messages on COVID-19 vaccination attitudes and behavioral intentions. Health Communication. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2022.2065747
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darling-Hammond, S., Michaels, E. K., Allen, A. M., Chae, D. H., Thomas, M. D., Nguyen, T. T., Mujahid, M. M., & Johnson, R. C. (2020). After “the China virus” went viral: Racially charged coronavirus coverage and trends in bias against Asian Americans. Health Education & Behavior, 47(6), 870–879. https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198120957949
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Day, M. V., Fiske, S. T., Downing, E. L., & Trail, T. E. (2014). Shifting liberal and conservative attitudes using moral foundations theory. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 40(12), 1559–1573. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167214551152
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeMora, S. L., Merolla, J. L., Newman, B., & Zechmeister, E. J. (2021). Reducing mask resistance among White evangelical Christians with value-consistent messages. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(21). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2101723118
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dennis, A. S., Moravec, P. L., Kim, A., & Dennis, A. R. (2021). Assessment of the effectiveness of identity-based public health announcements in increasing the likelihood of complying with COVID-19 guidelines: Randomized controlled cross-sectional web-based study. JMIR Public Health and Surveillance, 7(4), e25762. https://doi.org/10.2196/25762
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dhanani, L. Y., & Franz, B. (2021). Why public health framing matters: An experimental study of the effects of COVID-19 framing on prejudice and xenophobia in the United States. Social Science & Medicine, 269, 113572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113572
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dillard, J. P., Weber, K. M., & Vail, R. G. (2007). The relationship between the perceived and actual effectiveness of persuasive messages: A meta-analysis with implications for formative campaign research. The Journal of Communication, 57(4), 613–631. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2007.00360.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eden, A., Tamborini, R., Aley, M., & Goble, H. (2021). Advances in research on the Model of Intuitive Morality and Exemplars (MIME). In P. Vorderer & C. Kimmit (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of entertainment theory. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190072216.013.13
   Google Scholar
• Edwards Levy, A. (2020, April 20). The American public isn’t ready to reopen America. HuffPost. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/poll-coronavirus-stay-home-reopen-protests_n_5e9e1803c5b63c5b58734c96
   Google Scholar
• Feinberg, M., & Willer, R. (2013). The moral roots of environmental attitudes. Psychological Science, 24(1), 56–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612449177
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feinberg, M., & Willer, R. (2015). From gulf to bridge: When do moral arguments facilitate political influence? Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 41(12), 1665–1681. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167215607842
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feinberg, M., & Willer, R. (2019). Moral reframing: A technique for effective and persuasive communication across political divides. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 13(12), e12501. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12501
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forsberg, E., Nilsson, A., & Jørgensen, Ø. (2019). Moral dichotomization at the heart of prejudice: The role of moral foundations and intolerance of ambiguity in generalized prejudice. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 10(8), 1002–1010. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550618817347
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fridman, A., Gershon, R., Gneezy, A., & Capraro, V. (2021). COVID-19 and vaccine hesitancy: A longitudinal study. Plos One, 16(4), e0250123. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250123
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frimer, J. A., Boghrati, R., Haidt, J., Graham, J., & Dehghani, M. (2019). Moral foundations dictionary for linguistic analyses 2.0 [ Unpublished Manuscript].
   Google Scholar
• Gillman, A. S., Iles, I. A., Klein, W. M. P., & Ferrer, R. A. (in press). Increasing receptivity to COVID-19 public health messages with self-affirmation and self vs. other framing. Health Communication. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2022.2043024
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gollwitzer, A., Martel, C., Brady, W. J., Pärnamets, P., Freedman, I. G., Knowles, E. D., & Van Bavel, J. J. (2020). Partisan differences in physical distancing are linked to health outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic. Nature Human Behaviour, 4(11), 1186–1197. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-00977-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham, J., Haidt, J., Koleva, S., Motyl, M., Iyer, R., Wojcik, S. P., & Ditto, P. H. (2013). Moral foundations theory: The pragmatic validity of moral pluralism. In P. Devine & A. Plant (Eds.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 47, pp. 55–130). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-407236-7.00002-4
   Google Scholar
• Graham, J., Haidt, J., & Nosek, B. A. (2009). Liberals and conservatives rely on different sets of moral foundations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(5), 1029–1046. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015141
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green, J., Edgerton, J., Naftel, D., Shoub, K., & Cranmer, S. J. (2020). Elusive consensus: Polarization in elite communication on the COVID-19 pandemic. Science Advances, 6(28), eabc2717. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abc2717
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griffin, R. J., Dunwoody, S., & Neuwirth, K. (1999). Proposed model of the relationship of risk information seeking and processing to the development of preventive behaviors. Environmental Research, 80(2), S230–245. https://doi.org/10.1006/enrs.1998.3940
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hadarics, M., & Kende, A. (2018). The dimensions of generalized prejudice within the dual-process model: The mediating role of moral foundations. Current Psychology, 37(4), 731–739. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-016-9544-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansen, S. L., Eisner, M. I., Pfaller, L., & Schicktanz, S. (2018). “Are you in or are you out⁈” Moral appeals to the public in organ donation poster campaigns: A multimodal and ethical analysis. Health Communication, 33(8), 1020–1034. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2017.1331187
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F. (2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Holt, L. F., Kjærvik, S. L., & Bushman, B. J. (2022). Harming and shaming through naming: Examining why calling the coronavirus the “COVID-19 virus,” not the “Chinese virus,” matters. Media Psychology, 25(5), 639–652. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2022.2034021
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang, Y., & Shen, F. (2016). Effects of cultural tailoring on persuasion in cancer communication: A meta-analysis. The Journal of Communication, 66(4), 694–715. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12243
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hurst, K., & Stern, M. J. (2020). Messaging for environmental action: The role of moral framing and message source. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 68, 101394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2020.101394
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahane, L. H. (2021). Politicizing the mask: Political, economic and demographic factors affecting mask wearing behavior in the USA. Eastern Economic Journal, 47(2), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41302-020-00186-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kidwell, B., Farmer, A., & Hardesty, D. M. (2013). Getting liberals and conservatives to go green: Political ideology and congruent appeals. The Journal of Consumer Research, 40(2), 350–367. https://doi.org/10.1086/670610
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, C. H., Han, D., Duhachek, A., & Tormala, Z. L. (2018). Political identity, preference, and persuasion. Social Influence, 13(4), 177–191. https://doi.org/10.1080/15534510.2018.1518786
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, J. C., Park, B., & Dubois, D. (2018). How consumers’ political ideology and status-maintenance goals interact to shape their desire for luxury goods. Journal of Marketing, 82(6), 132–149. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022242918799699
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, S., & So, J. (2018). How message fatigue toward health messages leads to ineffective persuasive outcomes: Examining the mediating roles of reactance and inattention. Journal of Health Communication, 23(1), 109–116. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2017.1414900
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kivikangas, J. M., Fernández-Castilla, B., Järvelä, S., Ravaja, N., & Lönnqvist, J. -E. (2021). Moral foundations and political orientation: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 147(1), 55–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000308
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kouchaki, M., Gamez-Djokic, M., Mooijman, M., & Rocklage, M. (2021, February 13). When caring is not enough: Liberals provide less public support for liberal causes that use conservative moral language. Annual Meeting of the Society for Personality and Social, Virtual. https://whova.com/embedded/subsession/cecli_202103/1392501/1392504/
   Google Scholar
• Lammers, J., & Baldwin, M. (2018). Past-focused temporal communication overcomes conservatives’ resistance to liberal political ideas. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 114(4), 599–619. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000121
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Latimer, A. E., Katulak, N. A., Mowad, L., & Salovey, P. (2005). Motivating cancer prevention and early detection behaviors using psychologically tailored messages. Journal of Health Communication, 10(sup1), 137–155. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730500263364
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Latkin, C. A., Dayton, L., Yi, G., Colon, B., Kong, X., & Camacho-Rivera, M. (2021). Mask usage, social distancing, racial, and gender correlates of COVID-19 vaccine intentions among adults in the US. Plos One, 16(2), e0246970. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0246970
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liang, Y., & Kee, K. F. (2018). Developing and validating the A-B-C framework of information diffusion on social media. New Media & Society, 20(1), 272–292. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444816661552
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luttrell, A., & Petty, R. E. (2021). Evaluations of self-focused versus other-focused arguments for social distancing: An extension of moral matching effects. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 12(6), 946–954. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550620947853
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luttrell, A., Philipp-Muller, A. Z., & Petty, R. E. (2019). Challenging moral attitudes with moral messages. Psychological Science, 30(8), 1136–1150. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797619854706
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mann, T., Sherman, D., & Updegraff, J. (2004). Dispositional motivations and message framing: A test of the congruency hypothesis in college students. Health Psychology, 23(3), 330–334. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.23.3.330
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moon, W. -K., Atkinson, L., Kahlor, L. A., Yun, C., & Son, H. (2022). U.S. political partisanship and COVID-19: Risk information seeking and prevention behaviors. Health Communication, 37(13), 1671–1681. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2021.1912948
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nan, X., Iles, I. A., Yang, B., & Ma, Z. (2022). Public health messaging during the COVID-19 pandemic and beyond: Lessons from communication science. Health Communication, 37(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2021.1994910
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noar, S. M., Benac, C. N., & Harris, M. S. (2007). Does tailoring matter? Meta-analytic review of tailored print health behavior change interventions. Psychological Bulletin, 133(4), 673–693. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.4.673
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Keefe, D. J. (2013). The relative persuasiveness of different message types does not vary as a function of the persuasive outcome assessed: Evidence from 29 meta-analyses of 2,062 effect sizes for 13 message variations. Annals of the International Communication Association, 37(1), 221–249. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2013.11679151
   Google Scholar
• O’Shea, B. A., Vitriol, J. A., Federico, C. M., Appleby, J., & Williams, A. L. (2022). Exposure and aversion to human transmissible diseases predict conservative ideological and partisan preferences. Political Psychology, 43(1), 65–88. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12741
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 19, pp. 123–205). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60214-2
   Google Scholar
• Pew Research Center. (2020). Republicans, Democrats move even further apart in coronavirus concerns. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2020/06/25/republicans-democrats-move-even-further-apart-in-coronavirus-concerns/
   Google Scholar
• Pink, S., Chu, J., Druckman, J., Rand, D., & Willer, R. (2021). Elite party cues increase vaccination intentions among Republicans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(32), e2106559118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2106559118
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pope, J. P., Pelletier, L., & Guertin, C. (2018). Starting off on the best foot: A review of message framing and message tailoring, and recommendations for the comprehensive messaging strategy for sustained behavior change. Health Communication, 33(9), 1068–1077. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2017.1331305
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Powdthavee, N., Riyanto, Y. E., Liang, E. W. C., Xiong-Wei, J. Y., & Qi-Yu, C. (2021). When face masks signal social identity: Explaining the deep face-mask divide during the COVID-19 pandemic. Plos One, 16(6), e0253195. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0253195
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruisch, B., Boggs, S. T., Moore, C., Samayoa, J. G., Ladanyi, J., Steinert, S., & Fazio, R. (2021). Investigating the conservatism-disgust paradox in reactions to the COVID-19 pandemic: A critical reexamination of the interrelations between political ideology, disgust sensitivity, and pandemic response. PsyArXiv. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/yn23v
   Google Scholar
• Sohl, S. J., & Moyer, A. (2007). Tailored interventions to promote mammography screening: A meta-analytic review. Preventive Medicine, 45(4), 252–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2007.06.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Susmann, M. W., Xu, M., Clark, J. K., Wallace, L. E., Blankenship, K. L., Philipp-Muller, A. Z., Luttrell, A., Wegener, D. T., & Petty, R. E. (2022). Persuasion amidst a pandemic: Insights from the Elaboration Likelihood Model. European Review of Social Psychology, 33(2), 323–359. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2021.1964744
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tamborini, R. (2013). A model of intuitive morality and exemplars. In R. Tamborini (Ed.), Media and the moral mind (pp. 43–74). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
   Google Scholar
• Teeny, J. D., Siev, J. J., Briñol, P., Petty, R. E., & Lee, A. (2021). A review and conceptual framework for understanding personalized matching effects in persuasion. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 31(2), 382–414. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcpy.1198
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Terrizzi, J. A., Shook, N. J., & McDaniel, M. A. (2013). The behavioral immune system and social conservatism: A meta-analysis. Evolution and Human Behavior, 34(2), 99–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2012.10.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Green, T., & Tyson, A. (2020, April 2). 5 facts about partisan reactions to COVID-19 in the U.S. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/04/02/5-facts-about-partisan-reactions-to-covid-19-in-the-u-s/
   Google Scholar
• Voelkel, J. G., & Feinberg, M. (2017). Morally reframed arguments can affect support for political candidates. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 9(8), 917–924. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617729408
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, Y., Xu, Y. A., Wu, J., Kim, H. M., Fetterman, J. L., Hong, T., & McLaughlin, M. L. (in press). Moralization of e-cigarette use and regulation: A mixed-method computational analysis of opinion polarization. Health Communication. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2022.2027640
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitmarsh, L., & Corner, A. (2017). Tools for a new climate conversation: A mixed-methods study of language for public engagement across the political spectrum. Global Environmental Change, 42, 122–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2016.12.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winterich, K. P., Aquino, K., Mittal, V., & Swartz, R. (2013). When moral identity symbolization motivates prosocial behavior: The role of recognition and moral identity internalization. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 98(5), 759–770. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033177
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolsko, C., Ariceaga, H., & Seiden, J. (2016). Red, white, and blue enough to be green: Effects of moral framing on climate change attitudes and conservation behaviors. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 65, 7–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2016.02.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, S., Maloney, E. K., Tan, A. S. L., & Cappella, J. N. (2018). When visual cues activate moral foundations: Unintended effects of visual portrayals of vaping within electronic cigarette video advertisements. Human Communication Research, 44(3), 223–246. https://doi.org/10.1093/hcr/hqy004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar