539
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Examining Perceptions of Uncertain Language in Potential E-Cigarette Warning Labels: Results from 16 Focus Groups with Adult Tobacco Users and Youth

ORCID Icon, , , , , & show all

References

  • Agarwal, S., & Yu, H. (2010). Detecting hedge cues and their scope in biomedical text with conditional random fields. Journal of Biomedical Informatics, 43(6), 953–961. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbi.2010.08.003
  • American Lung Association. (2020). The impact of e-cigarettes on the lungs. American Lung Association. https://www.lung.org/quit-smoking/e-cigarettes-vaping/impact-of-e-cigarettes-on-lung
  • Bairamzadeh, S., Saidi-Mehrabad, M., & Pishvaee, M. S. (2018). Modelling different types of uncertainty in biofuel supply network design and planning: A robust optimization approach. Renewable Energy, 116(Part A), 500–517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2017.09.020
  • Berman, M. L. (2016). Clarifying Standards for Compelled Commercial Speech. Washington University Journal of Law & Policy, 50, 52–87. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2669450
  • Berry, C., Burton, S., & Howlett, E. (2017). Are cigarette smokers’, e-cigarette users’, and dual users’ health-risk beliefs and responses to advertising influenced by addiction warnings and product type? Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 19(10), 1185–1191. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntx075
  • Budescu, D. V., Rapoport, A., & Suleiman, R. (1990). Resource dilemmas with environmental uncertainty and asymmetric players. European Journal of Social Psychology, 20(6), 475–487. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420200603
  • Camerer, C., & Weber, M. (1992). Recent developments in modeling preferences: Uncertainty and ambiguity. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 5(4), 325–370. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00122575
  • Campaign for Tobacco-free Kids. (2021). Electronic cigarettes and youth. https://www.tobaccofreekids.org/assets/factsheets/0382.pdf
  • Campbell, P. (2011). Understanding the receivers and the reception of science’s uncertain messages. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 369(1956), 4891–4912. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2011.0068
  • CDC. (2021). Quick facts on the risks of e-cigarettes for kids, teens, and young adults. https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/basic_information/e-cigarettes/Quick-Facts-on-the-Risks-of-E-cigarettes-for-Kids-Teens-and-Young-Adults.html
  • Chang, C. (2015). Motivated processing: How people perceive news covering novel or contradictory health research findings. Science Communication, 37(5), 602–634. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547015597914
  • Choi, K., Fabian, L., Mottey, N., Corbett, A., & Forster, J. (2012). Young adults’ favorable perceptions of snus, dissolvable tobacco products, and electronic cigarettes: Findings from a focus group study. American Journal of Public Health, 102(11), 2088–2093. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2011.300525
  • Chun Tie, Y., Birks, M., & Francis, K. (2019). Grounded theory research: A design framework for novice researchers. SAGE Open Medicine, 7, 205031211882292. https://doi.org/10.1177/2050312118822927
  • CITA – the Wireless Association v. City of Berkeley, C-152529 EMC. (2015).
  • Corbett, J. B., & Durfee, J. L. (2004). Testing public (un)certainty of science: Media representations of global warming. Science Communication, 26(2), 129–151. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547004270234
  • Cox, S., Frings, D., Ahmed, R., & Dawkins, L. (2018). Messages matter: The tobacco products directive nicotine addiction health warning versus an alternative relative risk message on smokers’ willingness to use and purchase an electronic cigarette. Addictive Behaviors Reports, 8, 136–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2018.09.006
  • C+R Research. (n.d.). https://www.crresearch.com/methods
  • Cullen, K. A., Gentzke, A. S., Sawdey, M. D., Chang, J. T., Anic, G. M., Wang, T. W., Creamer, M. R., Jamal, A., Ambrose, B. K., & King, B. A. (2019). E-cigarette use among youth in the United States, 2019. JAMA, 322(21), 2095. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2019.18387
  • Dave, D., Dench, D., Kenkel, D., Mathios, A., & Wang, H. (2020). News that takes your breath away: Risk perceptions during an outbreak of vaping-related lung injuries. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 60(3), 281–307. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11166-020-09329-2
  • Davis, J. (2007). The effect of qualifying language on perceptions of drug appeal, drug experience, and estimates of side-effect incidence in DTC advertising. Journal of Health Communication, 12(7), 607–622. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730701615164
  • Davis, T. C., Wolf, M. S., Bass, P. F., Middlebrooks, M., Kennen, E., Baker, D. W., Bennett, C. L., Durazo-Arvizu, R., Bocchini, A., Savory, S., & Parker, R. M. (2006). Low literacy impairs comprehension of prescription drug warning labels. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 21(8), 847–851. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1497.2006.00529.x
  • DiFranza, J. R., Savageau, J. A., Fletcher, K., O’Loughlin, J., Pber, L., Ockene, J. K., McNeill, A. D., Hazelton, J., Friedman, K., Gretchen, D., Wood, C., & Wellman, R. J. (2007). Symptoms of tobacco dependence after brief intermittent use: The development and assessment of nicotine dependence in youth-2 study. Archive of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 161(7), 704–710. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.161.7.704
  • Ding, D., Maibach, E. W., Zhao, X., Roser-Renouf, C., & Leiserowitz, A. (2011). Support for climate policy and societal action are linked to perceptions about scientific agreement. Nature Climate Change, 1(9), 462–466. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1295
  • Drope, J., Cahn, Z., Kennedy, R., Liber, A. C., Stoklosa, M., Henson, R., Douglas, C. E., & Drope, J. (2017). Key issues surrounding the health impacts of electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS) and other sources of nicotine. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, 67(6), 449–471. https://doi.org/10.3322/caac.21413
  • Eaton, D. L., Kwan, L. Y., & Stratton, K. (Eds.). (2018). Public health consequences of e-cigarettes. National Academies Press. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK507191/
  • FDA. (2016, May 10). Deeming tobacco products to be subject to the federal food, drug, and cosmetic act, as amended by the family smoking prevention and tobacco control act; restrictions on the sale and distribution of tobacco products and required warning statements for tobacco products. Federal Register. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2016/05/10/2016-10685/deeming-tobacco-products-to-be-subject-to-the-federal-food-drug-and-cosmetic-act-as-amended-by-the
  • FDA. (2020a). FDA finalizes enforcement policy on unauthorized flavored cartridge-based e-cigarettes that appeal to children, including fruit and mint. https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-finalizes-enforcement-policy-unauthorized-flavored-cartridge-based-e-cigarettes-appeal-children
  • FDA. (2020b). FDA’s youth tobacco prevention plan. https://www.fda.gov/tobacco-products/youth-and-tobacco/fdas-youth-tobacco-prevention-plan
  • FDA. (2020c). How FDA is reflating e-cigarettes. Food and Drug Administration. https://www.fda.gov/news-events/fda-voices/how-fda-regulating-e-cigarettes
  • FDA. (2020d). Tobacco products; required warnings for cigarette packages and advertisements. Federal Register. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2020/03/18/2020-05223/tobacco-products-required-warnings-for-cigarette-packages-and-advertisements
  • FDA. (2020e). Youth tobacco use: Results from the National Youth Tobacco Survey. https://www.fda.gov/tobacco-products/youth-and-tobacco/youth-tobacco-use-results-national-youth-tobacco-survey
  • FDA. (2021). FDA permits marketing of e-cigarette products, marking first authorization of its kind by the agency. https://content.govdelivery.com/accounts/USFDA/bulletins/2f72348
  • FDA. (2022a). E-Cigarettes, vapes, and other Electronic Nicotine Delivery Systems (ENDS). https://www.fda.gov/tobacco-products/products-ingredients-components/e-cigarettes-vapes-and-other-electronic-nicotine-delivery-systems-ends
  • FDA. (2022b). FDA proposes rules prohibiting menthol cigarettes and flavored cigars to prevent youth initiation, significantly reducate tobacco-related disease and death. https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-proposes-rules-prohibiting-menthol-cigarettes-and-flavored-cigars-prevent-youth-initiation
  • FDA. (2022c). Results from the Annual National Youth Tobacco Survey. https://www.fda.gov/tobacco-products/youth-and-tobacco/results-annual-national-youth-tobacco-survey
  • FDA Commissioner, O. of the. (2018). Press announcements—Statement from FDA Commissioner Scott Gottlieb, M.D., on new steps to address epidemic of youth e-cigarette use [WebContent]. https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm620185.htm
  • Federal Communications Commission v. Beach Communication, Inc., 508 U.S. 307, 315. (1993).
  • Frewer, L. J., Miles, S., Brennan, M., Kuznesof, S., Ness, M., & Ritson, C. (2002). Public preferences for informed choice under conditions of risk uncertainty. Public Understanding of Science, 11(4), 363–372. https://doi.org/10.1088/0963-6625/11/4/304
  • Friedman, A. S., & Horn, S. J. L. (2019). Socioeconomic disparities in electronic cigarette use and transitions from smoking. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 21(10), 1363–1370. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/nty120
  • George, J., Hussain, M., Vadiveloo, T., Ireland, S., Hopkinson, P., Struthers, A. D., Donnan, P. T., Khan, F., & Lang, C. C. (2019). Cardiovascular effects of switching from tobacco cigarettes to electronic cigarettes. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 74(25), 3112–3120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2019.09.067
  • Glasser, A., Abudayyeh, H., Cantrell, J., & Niaura, R. (2018). Patterns of E-cigarette use among youth and young adults: Review of the impact of e-cigarettes on cigarette smoking. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 21(10), 1320–1330. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/nty103
  • Goriounova, N. A., & Mansvelder, H. D. (2012). Short- and long-term consequences of nicotine exposure during adolescence for prefrontal cortex neuronal network function. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine, 2(12), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a012120
  • Gustafson, A., & Rice, R. E. (2019). The effects of uncertainty frames in three science communication topics. Science Communication, 41(6), 679–706. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547019870811
  • Gustafson, A., & Rice, R. E. (2020). A review of the effects of uncertainty in public science communication. Public Understanding of Science, 29(6), 614–633. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662520942122
  • Habicht, F. H. (1992). Guidance on risk characterization for risk managers and risk assessors. United States Environmental Protection Agency.
  • Hallberg, L.R. -M. (2006). The “core category” of grounded theory: Making constant comparisons. International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-Being, 1(3), 141–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482620600858399
  • Han, P. K. J., Moser, R. P., & Klein, W. M. P. (2007). Perceived ambiguity about cancer prevention recommendations: Relationship to perceptions of cancer preventability, risk, and worry. Journal of Health Communication, 11(sup001), 51–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730600637541
  • Harlow, A. F., Stokes, A., & Brooks, D. R. (2018). Socioeconomic and racial/ethnic differences in e-cigarette uptake among cigarette smokers: Longitudinal analysis of the Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH) study. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 21(10), 1385–1393. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/nty141
  • Huang, J., Feng, B., Weaver, S. R., Pechacek, T. F., Slovic, P., & Eriksen, M. P. (2019). Changing perceptions of harm of e-cigarette vs cigarette use among adults in 2 US national surveys from 2012 to 2017. JAMA Network Open, 2(3), e191047. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.1047
  • Hyland, K. (1998). Hedging in scientific research articles. John Benjamins Publishing.
  • Johnson, B. B., & Slovic, P. (1995). Presenting uncertainty in health risk assessment: Initial studies of its effects on risk perception and trust. Risk Analysis, 15(4), 485–494. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6924.1995.tb00341.x
  • Katz, S. J., Byrne, S., Mathios, A. D., Avery, R. J., Dorf, M. C., Safi, A. G., & Niederdeppe, J. (2020). Testing the effects of certain versus hypothetical language in health risk messages. Communication Monographs, 87(1), 47–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2019.1640889
  • Katz, S. J., Erkinnen, M., Lindgren, B., & Hatsukami, D. (2019). Beliefs about e-cigarettes: A focus group study with college students. American Journal of Health Behavior, 43(1), 76–87. https://doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.43.1.7
  • Keren, G., & Gerritsen, L. E. M. (1999). On the robustness and possible accounts of ambiguity aversion. Acta Psychologica, 103(1–2), 149–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0001-6918(99)00034-7
  • Kiani, R., Corthell, L., & Shadlen, M. N. (2014). Choice certainty is informed by both evidence and decision time. Neuron, 84(6), 1329–1342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2014.12.015
  • Kimber, C., Frings, D., Cox, S., Albery, I., & Dawkins, L. (2018). The effects of the European e-cigarette health warnings and comparative health messages on non-smokers’ and smokers’ risk perceptions and behavioural intentions. BMC Public Health, 18(1), 1259. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-6161-7
  • Kimber, C., Frings, D., Cox, S., Albery, I. P., & Dawkins, L. (2020). Communicating the relative health risks of E-cigarettes: An online experimental study exploring the effects of a comparative health message versus the EU nicotine addiction warnings on smokers’ and non-smokers’ risk perceptions and behavioural intentions. Addictive Behaviors, 101, 106177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.106177
  • Kim, C. -Y., Paek, Y. -J., Seo, H. G., Cheong, Y. S., Lee, C. M., Park, S. M., Park, D. W., & Lee, K. (2020). Dual use of electronic and conventional cigarettes is associated with higher cardiovascular risk factors in Korean men. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 5612. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-62545-3
  • Kozlowski, L. T., & Sweanor, D. (2016). Withholding differential risk information on legal consumer nicotine/tobacco products: The public health ethics of health information quarantines. International Journal of Drug Policy, 32, 17–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.03.014
  • Kumar, S., & Nash, D. B. (2011, March 25). Health care myth busters: Is there a high degree of scientific certainty in modern medicine? Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/demand-better-health-care-book/
  • Lehmkuhl, M., & Peters, H. P. (2016). Constructing (un-)certainty: An exploration of journalistic decision-making in the reporting of neuroscience. Public Understanding of Science, 25(8), 909–926. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662516646047
  • Levy, D. T., Borland, R., Lindblom, E. N., Goniewicz, M. L., Meza, R., Holford, T. R., Yuan, Z., Luo, Y., O’Connor, R. J., Niaura, R., & Abrams, D. B. (2018). Potential deaths averted in USA by replacing cigarettes with e-cigarettes. Tobacco Control, 27(1), 18. https://doi.org/10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2017-053759
  • Levy, D. T., Yuan, Z., & Li, Y. (2017). The prevalence and characteristics of e-cigarette users in the U.S. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(10), 1200. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14101200
  • Malt, L., Verron, T., Cahours, X., Guo, M., Weaver, S., Walele, T., & O’Connell, G. (2020). Perception of the relative harm of electronic cigarettes compared to cigarettes amongst US adults from 2013 to 2016: Analysis of the Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH) study data. Harm Reduction Journal, 17(1), 65. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12954-020-00410-2
  • Marynak, K., Mahoney, M., Williams, K. -A.S., Tynan, M. A., Reimels, E., & King, B. A. (2020). State and territorial laws prohibiting sales of tobacco products to persons aged <21 Years—United States, December 20, 2019. MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 69(7), 189–192. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6907a3
  • McMillen, R., Klein, J. D., Wilson, K., Winickoff, J. P., & Tanski, S. (2019). E-cigarette use and future cigarette initiation among never smokers and relapse among former smokers in the PATH Study. Public Health Reports, 134(5), 528–536. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033354919864369
  • Miller, T. J. (2020). The harm-reduction quandary of reducing adult smoking while dissuading youth initiation. American Journal of Public Health, 110(6), 788–789. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2020.305688
  • Morgan, M. G., Dowlatabadi, H., Henrion, M., Keith, D., Lempert, R., McBride, S., Small, M., & Wilbanks, T. (2009). Best practice approaches for characterizing, communicating, and incorporating scientific uncertainty in climate decision making. Climate Change Science Program, Subcommittee on Global Change Research.
  • National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2018) . Public health consequences of e-cigarettes. National Academies Press.
  • National Center for Education Statistics. (2020a). Adult numeracy in the United States. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2020/2020025.pdf
  • National Center for Education Statistics. (2020b). Program for the international assessment of adult competencies. https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/piaac/state-county-estimates.asp#4
  • N.Y. State Restaurant Association v. City of N.Y.C Board of Health, 556 F.3d 114, 132 ( 2nd Cir. 2009).
  • Patton, M. (2015). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (4th ed.). Sage Publications.
  • Percy, W., Kostere, K., & Kostere, S. (2015). Generic qualitative research in psychology. The Qualitative Report. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2015.2097
  • Polosa, R., Morjaria, J. B., Prosperini, U., Busà, B., Pennisi, A., Malerba, M., Maglia, M., & Caponnetto, P. (2020). COPD smokers who switched to e-cigarettes: Health outcomes at 5-year follow up. Therapeutic Advances in Chronic Disease, 11, 204062232096161. https://doi.org/10.1177/2040622320961617
  • Popper, K. R. (1959). The propensity interpretation of probability. The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 10(37), 25–42. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjps/X.37.25
  • Public Health England. (2015). E-cigarettes: An evidence update. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/733022/Ecigarettes_an_evidence_update_A_report_commissioned_by_Public_Health_England_FINAL.pdf
  • Pulvers, K., Emami, A. S., Nollen, N. L., Romero, D. R., Strong, D. R., Benowitz, N. L., & Ahluwalia, J. S. (2016). Tobacco consumption and toxicant exposure of cigarette smokers using electronic cigarettes. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 20 (2), 206–214 , delete space after issue number and change comma after p. #s to period. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/ntw333
  • Ramanadhan, S., Revette, A. C., Lee, R. M., & Aveling, E. L. (2021). Pragmatic approaches to analyzing qualitative data for implementation science: An introduction. Implementation Science Communications, 2(1), 70. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43058-021-00174-1
  • Ratajczak, A., Feleszko, W., Smith, D. M., & Goniewicz, M. (2018). How close are we to definitively identifying the respiratory health effects of e-cigarettes? Expert Review of Respiratory Medicine, 12(7), 549–556. https://doi.org/10.1080/17476348.2018.1483724
  • Reis, J., & Spencer, P. S. (2019). Decision-Making under uncertainty in environmental health policy: New approaches. Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine, 24(1), 57. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12199-019-0813-9
  • Rifkin, E., & Bouwer, E. (2007). The illusion of certainty [Health benefits and risks]. Springer.
  • Rothwell, J. (2020). Assessing the economic gains of eradicating illiteracy nationally and regionally in the United States. Barbara Bush Foundation for Family Literacy. https://www.barbarabush.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/BBFoundation_GainsFromEradicatingIlliteracy_9_8.pdf
  • Rudd, R. E. (2019). Health literacy considerations for a new cancer prevention initiative. The Gerontologist, 59(Supplement_1), S7–16. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnz032
  • Sheridan, D. J., & Julian, D. G. (2016). Achievements and limitations of evidence-based medicine. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 68(2), 204–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2016.03.600
  • Simis, M. (2013). Framing uncertainty: A case for purposefully using frames in science communication. In J. Goodwin, M. F. Dahlstrom & S. Priest (Eds.), Ethical issues in science communication: A theory-based approach (pp. 265–278). CreateSpace.
  • Simpkin, A. L., & Armstrong, K. A. (2019). Communicating uncertainty: A narrative review and framework for future research. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 34(11), 2586–2591. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-019-04860-8
  • Stewart, D. W., Adams, C. E., Cano, M. A., Correa-Fernández, V., Li, Y., Waters, A. J., Wetter, D. W., & Vidrine, J. I. (2013). Associations between health literacy and established predictors of smoking cessation. American Journal of Public Health, 103(7), e43–49. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2012.301062
  • Stocking, S. H. (2010). Uncertainty in science communication. In S. H. Priest (Ed.), Encyclopedia of science and technology communication (pp. 919–921). SAGE.
  • Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2020). Evidence-based resource guide series: Reducing vaping among youth and young adults. https://store.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/SAMHSA_Digital_Download/PEP20-06-01-003_508.pdf
  • Surgeon General. (2014). The health consequences of smoking—50 Years of progress: A report of the Surgeon General, 2014 | SurgeonGeneral.gov. https://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/reports/50-years-of-progress/index.html
  • Surgeon General. (2016). E-cigarette use among youth and young adults: A report of the Surgeon General. US Department of Health and Human Services. https://e-cigarettes.surgeongeneral.gov/documents/2016_sgr_full_report_non-508.pdf
  • Truth Initiative. (2020). What vape products are still allowed under the new e-cigarette policy? https://truthinitiative.org/research-resources/emerging-tobacco-products/what-vape-products-are-still-allowed-under-new-e
  • Tversky, A., & Shafir, E. (1992). Choice under conflict: The dynamics of deferred decision. Psychological Science, 3(6), 358–361. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1992.tb00047.x
  • UKNHS. (2022). Using e-cigarettes to stop smoking. https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/quit-smoking/using-e-cigarettes-to-stop-smoking/
  • van der Bles, A. M., van der Linden, S., Freeman, A. L. J., Mitchell, J., Galvao, A. B., Zaval, L., & Spiegelhalter, D. J. (2019). Communicating uncertainty about facts, numbers and science. Royal Society Open Science, 6(5), 181870. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.181870
  • van der Helm, R. (2006). Towards a clarification of probability, possibility and plausibility: How semantics could help futures practice to improve. Foresight, 8(3), 17–27. https://doi.org/10.1108/14636680610668045
  • Wackowski, O. A., Lewis, M. J., & Delnevo, C. D. (2016). Interviews with smokers about smokeless tobacco products, risk messages and news articles. Tobacco Control; London, 25(6), 671. https://doi.org/10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2015-052412
  • Walker, W. E., Harremoës, P., Rotmans, J., van der Sluijs, J. P., van Asselt, M. B. A., Janssen, P., & Krayer von Krauss, M. P. (2003). Defining uncertainty: A conceptual basis for uncertainty management in model-based decision support. Integrated Assessment, 4(1), 5–17. https://doi.org/10.1076/iaij.4.1.5.16466
  • Warner, K. E., & Mendez, D. (2019). E-cigarettes: Comparing the possible risks of increasing smoking initiation with the potential benefits of increasing smoking cessation. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 21(1), 41–47. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/nty062
  • West, A. F., & West, R. R. (2002). Clinical decision-making: Coping with uncertainty. Postgraduate Medical Journal, 78(920), 319–321. https://doi.org/10.1136/pmj.78.920.319
  • Wilson, S., Partos, T., McNeill, A., & Brose, L. S. (2019). Harm perceptions of e-cigarettes and other nicotine products in a UK sample. Addiction, 114(5), 879–888. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.14502
  • Yuan, M., Cross, S. J., Loughlin, S. E., & Leslie, F. M. (2015). Nicotine and the adolescent brain. The Journal of Physiology, 539(16), 3397–3412. https://doi.org/10.1113/JP270492

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.