Bergamot (Citrus bergamia Risso et Poiteau) essential oil: Biological properties, cosmetic and medical use. A review

References

• Dugo , G. and Di Giacomo , A. 2002 . Citrus – The Genus Citrus , London : Taylor & Francis .
   Google Scholar
• Fitzpatrick , T.B. , Hopkins , C.E. , Blickenstaff , D.P. and Swift , S. 1955 . Preliminary and short report: Augmented pigmentation and other responses of normal human skin to solar radiation following oral administration of 8-methoxypsoralen . J. Invest. Dermatol. , 25 : 187 – 190 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kligman , A.M. and Forlot , P. 1992 . Comparative photoprotection in humans by tans induced either by solar simulating radiation or after application of a psoralen-containing sunscreen . Nouv. Dermatol. , 11 : 666 – 673 .
   Google Scholar
• Levine , N. , Scot , D. , Owens , C. , Rogers , D.T. , Kligman , A.M. and Forlot , P. 1989 . The effect of bergapten and sunlight on cutaneous pigmentation . Arch. Dermatol. , 125 : 1225 – 1230 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chadwick , C.A. , Potten , C.S. , Cohen , A.J. and Young , A.R. 1994 . The time of onset and duration of 5-methoxypsoralen photochemoprotection from UVR induced DNA damage in human skin . Br. J. Dermatol. , 13 : 483 – 494 .
   Google Scholar
• Potten , C.S. , Chadwick , C.A. , Young , A.R. , Cohen , A.J. , Nikaidos , O. , Matsunaga , T. and Young , A.R. 1993 . DNA damage in UV-irradiated human skin in vivo: Automated direct measurement by image analysis (thymin dimers) compared with indirect measurement (unscheduled DNA synthesis) and protection by 5-methoxypsoralen . Int. J. Radiat. Biol. , 63 : 313 – 324 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gange , R.W. , Park , Y.E. , Auletta , M. , Kagetsu , N. , Blackett , A.D. and Parrish , J.A. 1986 . “ Action spectrum for cutaneous responses to ultraviolet radiation ” . In The Biological Effects of UVA Radiation , Edited by: Urbach , F. and Gange , R.W. 57 – 67 . New York : Praeger .
   Google Scholar
• Parrish , J.A. , Anderson , R.R. , Urbach , F. and Pitts , D. 1978 . Biological Effects of Ultraviolet Radiation with Emphasis on Human Responses to Long-wave Ultraviolet, pp. 157–175 , New York : Plenum Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kelfkens , G. , Van Weelden , H. , De Gruijl , F.R. and Van der Leun , J.C. 1991 . The influence of dose rate on ultraviolet tumorigenesis . J. Photochem. Photobiol. B , 10 : 41 – 50 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Musajo , L. and Rodighiero , G. 1972 . Mode of photosensitization of furocoumarins . Photophysiology , 7 : 115 – 147 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Averbeck , D. , Averbeck , S. , Dubertret , L. , Young , A. and Morliere , P. 1992 . Genotoxic effects of bergamot oil in yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) . Nouv. Dermatol. , 11 : 674 – 677 .
   Google Scholar
• Moysan , A. , Morliere , P. , Averbeck , D. and Dubertret , L. 1993 . Evaluation of phototoxic and photogenotoxic risk associated with the use of photosensitizers in suntan preparations: Application to tanning preparations containing bergamot oil . Skin Pharmacol. , 6 : 282 – 295 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zajdela , F. and Bisagni , E. 1981 . 5-Methoxypsoralen, the melanogenic additive in suntan preparations, is tumorigenic in mice exposed to 365 nm UV radiation . Carcinogenesis , 2 : 121 – 127 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young , A.R. , Gibbs , N.K. and Magnus , I.A. 1981 . Modification of 5-methoxypsoralen phototumorigenesis by UVB sunscreens: A statistical and histologic study in the hairless albino mouse . J. Invest. Dermatol. , 89 : 611 – 617 .
   Google Scholar
• Young , A.R. 1992 . Experimental photocarcinogenesis of psoralens . Nouv. Dermatol. , 11 : 683 – 687 .
   Google Scholar
• Parrish , J.A. , Fitzpatrick , T.B. , Tanenbaum , L. and Pathak , N.A. 1974 . Photochemotherapy of psoriasis with oral methoxalen and long wave ultraviolet light . N. England J. Med. , 291 : 1207 – 1212 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• H. Hoenigsmann, K. Wolf, T.B. Fitzpatrick, M.A. Pathak and J.A. Parrish, Oral photochemotherapy with psoralens and UVA (PUVA): Principles and practice. In: Dermatology in General Medicine, volume 1, 3rd edn. Edits., T.B. Fitzpatrick, A.Z. Eisen and K. Wolf, pp. 1513–1554. McGraw-Hill, New York (1987).
   Google Scholar
• Hoenigsmann , H. , Jaschke , E. , Gschnait , F. , Brenner , W. , Fritsch , P. and Wolff , K. 1979 . 5-Methoxypsoralen (bergapten) in photochemotherapy of psoriasis . Br. J. Dermatol. , 101 : 369 – 379 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kalis , B. , Sayag , S. and Forlot , P. 1988 . “ Photochemotherapy (PUVA) of psoriasis: A double-blind comparative study of 5- and 8-methoxypsoralen ” . In Psoralens: Past, Present and Future of Photochemotherapy and Other Biological Activities , Edited by: Fitzpatrick , T.B. , Forlot , P. and Urbach , F. 277 – 282 . Montrouge : John Libbey Eurotext .
   Google Scholar
• Thioly-Benssoussan , D. , Berretti , B. and Grupper , Ch. 1988 . “ PUVA and RE-PUVA in the treatment of mycosis fungoides: 58 cases of mycosis fungoides with 7 to 18 years follow up ” . In Psoralens: Past, Present and Future of Photochemotherapy and Other Biological Activities , Edited by: Fitzpatrick , T.B. , Forlot , P. and Urbach , F. 293 – 300 . Montrouge : John Libbey Eurotext .
   Google Scholar
• Pathak , M.A. , Fitzpatrick , T.B. , Mosher , D.B. and Forlot , P. 1992 . Photochemotherapy of vitiligo. Comparative effectiveness and tolerance of 5-methoxypsoralen and 8-methoxypsoralen in Indian patients . Nouv. Dermatol. , 11 : 715 – 719 .
   Google Scholar
• Stern , R.S. , Thibodeau , I.A. and Kleinerman , R.A. 1979 . Risk of cutaneous carcinoma in patients treated with oral methoxalen photochemotherapy for psoriasis . N. Engl. J. Med. , 300 : 809 – 813 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fitzpatrick , T.B. 1988 . “ The psoralen story: Photochemotherapy and photochemoprotection ” . In Psoralens: Past, Present and Future of Photochemotherapy and Other Biological Activities , Edited by: Fitzpatrick , T.B. , Forlot , P. and Urbach , F. 5 – 10 . Montrouge : John Libbey Eurotext .
   Google Scholar
• Arendt , J. , Symons , A.M. and Land , C.A. 1981 . Pineal function in the sheep: Evidence for a possible mechanism mediating seasonal reproductive activity . Experientia , 37 : 384 – 387 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wetterberg , L. , Beckfriis , J. , Kjellman , B.F. and Lungreen , J.G. 1984 . Circadian rhythmus in melatonin and cortisol secretion in depression . Adv. Biochem. Psychoparmacol. , 39 : 197 – 205 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Souetre , E. , Salvati , E. , Belugou , J.L. , de Galeani , B. , Krebs , B. , Ortonne , J.P. and Darcourt , G. 1987 . 5-Methoxypsoralen Increases plasma melatonin levels in human . J. Invest. Dermatol. , 89 : 152 – 159 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Souetre , E. , Salvati , E. and Darcourt , G. 1988 . “ Melatonin and depression: A possible role of psoralen ” . In Psoralens: Past, Present and Future of Photochemotherapy and Other Biological Activities , Edited by: Fitzpatrick , T.B. , Forlot , P. and Urbach , F. 301 – 326 . Montrouge : John Libbey Eurotext .
   Google Scholar
• Darcourt , G. , Feuillade , P. , Bistagnin , V. , Robert , P. , Pringuey , D. , Merdji , L. and Bensmail , B. 1995 . Antidepressant effect of 5-MOP: The melatonin synchronizer hypothesis . Eur. Psychiatry , 10 : 142 – 154 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schmitbiel , A. , Gross , M.S. , Bujon-Pinard , P. and Laxenaire , M. 1994 . Chronobiology of depression: The seasonal depressions. Clinical aspects, physiology and specific treatments . Ann. Med. Psychol. , 152 : 444 – 456 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pevet , P. and Mauviard , F. 1992 . Effect of 5-MOP on the circulating concentration of melatonin . Nouv. Dermatol. , 11 : 729 – 735 .
   Google Scholar
• Mauviard , F. , Pévet , P. and Forlot , P. 1992 . “ The increase in plasma melatonin concentrations observed after administration of 5-methoxypsoralen (5-MOP) might be due to the 5-MOP-induced inhibition of melatonin clearance ” . In Advances in Pineal Research 6 , Edited by: Foldes , A. and Reiter , R.J. 99 – 102 . London : Libbey .
   Google Scholar
• Beeton , Ch. and Chandy , K.G. 2005 . Potassium channels, memory T-cells, and multiple sclerosis . Neuroscientist , 11 : 550 – 562 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bethge , E.W. , Bohulavizki , K.H. , Hansel , W. , Kneip , A. and Koppehöffer , E. 1991 . Effects off some potassium channel blockers on the ionic currents in myelinated nerves . Gen. Physiol. Biophys. , 10 : 225 – 244 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bohulavizki , K.H. , Hansel , W. , Kneip , A. , Koppenhöfer , E. and Reimen , A. 1992 . Potassium channel blockers from Ruta – A new approach for the treatment of multiple sclerosis . Gen. Physiol. Biophys. , 11 : 507 – 512 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• During , T. , Gerst , F. , Hänsel , W. , Wulff , H. and Koppenhöffer , E. 2000 . The effects of the photoxic K+-channel blockers 8-MOP and 5-MOP on Ranvier nodes . Gen. Physiol. Biophys. , 19 : 345 – 364 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koppenhöffer , E. , Fabre , G. and Forlot , P. 2001 . New UV- & non UV light related pharmacological and potential therapeutic uses of bergapten . Essenz. Deriv. Agrum. , 71 : 231 – 236 .
   Google Scholar
• Sanguinetti , M. , Porteraro , B. , Romano , L. , Battaglia , F. , Lopizzo , T. , De Carolis , E. and Fadda , G. 2006 . In vitro activity of citrus (bergamot) oil against clinical isolates of dermatophytes . J. Antimicrob. Chemother. , 59 : 305 – 308 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hammer , K.A. , Carson , C.F. and Riley , J.V. 1999 . Antimicrobial activity of essential oils and other plant extracts . J. Appl. Microbiol. , 86 : 985 – 990 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mandalari , G. , Benett , R.N. , Bisignano , G. , Trombetta , D. , Saija , A. , Faulds , C.B. , Gasson , M.J. and Narbad , A. 2007 . Antimicrobial activity of flavonoids extracted from bergamot (Citrus bergamia Rissso) peel, a byproduct of the essential oil industry . J Appl. Microbiol. , 103 : 2056 – 2064 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romano , L. , Battaglia , F. , Masucci , L. , Sanguinetti , M. , Posteraro , B. , Plotti , G. , Zanetti , S. and Fadda , G. 2005 . In vitro activity of bergamot natural essence and furocoumarin-free and distilled extracts, and their associations with boric acid, against clinical yeast isolates . J Antimicrob Chemother. , 55 : 110 – 114 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ojala , T. , Remes , S. , Haansua , P. , Vuorella , H. , Hiltanen , P. , Haahtela , K. and Vuorela , P. 2000 . Antimicrobial activity of some coumarin containing herbal plants growing in Finland . J. Ethnopharmacol. , 73 : 299 – 305 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karaca , M. , Özbek , H. , Him , A. , Tütüncü , M. , Akkan , H.A. and Kaplanoglu , V. 2007 . Investigation of anti-inflammatory activity of Bergamot oil . Eur. J. Gen. Med. , 4 : 176 – 179 .
   Google Scholar
• Borgatti , M. , Mancini , I. , Bianchi , N. , Guerini , A. , Lampronti , M. , Rossi , D. , Schetti , G. and Gambari , R. 2011 . Bergamot (Citrus bergamia Risso) fruit extracts and identified components alter expression of interleukin-8 gene in cystic fibrosis bronchial epithelial cell lines . BMC Biochem. , 12 : 15 – 17 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Trombetta , D. , Cimino , F. , Cristani , M. , Mandalari , G. , Saija , A. , Ginestra , G. , Speciale , A. , Chirafini , J. , Bisignano , G. , Valdron , K. , Narbad , A. and Faulds , C.B. 2010 . In vitro protective effect of two extracts from Bergamot peel on human endothelial cells exposed to tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 58 : 8430 – 8436 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mancini , F. , Tundis , R. , Loizza , M.R. , Bonezzi , M. , Provenzano , E. and de Cindia , B. 2010 . In vitro photoinduced cytotoxic activity of Citrus bergamia and Citrus medica L. cv Diamante peel essential oils and identified active coumarins . Pharm. Biol. , 48 : 1059 – 1065 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Borgatti , M. , Mancini , I. , Bianchi , N. , Guerini , A. , Camponti , I. , Rossi , D. , Sachetti , G. and Gambari , R. 2011 . Bergamot (Citrus bergamia Risso) fruit extracts and identified components alter expression of interleukin 8 in cystic fibrosis bronchial epithelial cell lines . BMC Biochem. , 12 : 15
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Miceli , N. , Mondello , M.R. , Monforte , M.T. , Sdrafkakis , V. , Dugo , P. , Crupi , M.L. , Taviano , M.F. , De Pasquale , R. and Trovato , A. 2007 . Hypolipidemic effects of Citrus bergamia Risso & Poiteau juice in rats fed a hypercholesterolemic diet . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 55 : 10671 – 10677 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leoplodini , M. , Malaj , N. , Toscano , M. , Sindona , G. and Russo , N. 2010 . On the inhibitor effects of bergamot juice flavonoids binding to the 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl6CoA reductase (HMGR) Enzyme . J. Agric. Food Chem. , 58 : 10768 – 10773 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mollace , V. , Sacco , I. , Janda , E. , Malara , C. , Ventrice , D. , Colica , C. , Visalli , V. , Muscoli , S. , Ragusa , S. , Muscoli , C. , Rotiroti , D. and Romeo , F. 2011 . Hypolipemic and hypoglycaemic activity of bergamot polyphenols: From animal models to human studies . Fitoterapia , 82 : 309 – 316 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bagetta , G. , Morrone , L.A. , Rombola , L. , Amantea , D. , Russo , N. , Berlocchi , L. , Sakurada , C. , Sakurada , T. , Rotiroti , D. and Corasanti , T. 2010 . Neuropharmacology of essential oil of bergamot . Fitoterapia , 81 : 454 – 461 .
   Google Scholar
• C. Muscoli, C. D’Agostino, F. Lauro, S. Ilari, E. Palma, D. Salvemini and V. Mollace, The protective effect of bergamot derivates on chemotherapy-induced neuropathic pain. Abstracts, p. 23. In First International Conference: Herbal & Antioxidant Derivatives in Health and Diseases: Focus on Bergamot, September 24, 2011, Reggio Calabria, Italy.
   Google Scholar