What Happens to Physical Activity Behavior, Motivation, Self-Concept, and Flow After Completing School? A Longitudinal Study

REFERENCES

• Amisola , R. V. B. and Jacobson , M. S. 2003 . Physical activity, exercise and sedentary activity: Relationship to the causes and treatment of obesity . Adolescent Medicine , 14 : 23 – 35 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Andersen , R. E. , Crespo , C. J. , Bartlett , S. J. , Cheskin , L. J. and Pratt , M. 1998 . Relationship of physical activity and television watching with body weight and level of fatness among children: Results from the 3rd National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey . Journal of the American Medical Association , 279 : 938 – 942 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Armstrong , N. and Van Mechelen , W. 1998 . “ Are young people fit and active? ” . In Young and active? Young people and health enhancing physical activity: Evidence and implications , Edited by: Biddle , S. , Sallis , J. F. and Cavill , N. A. 69 – 97 . London : Health Education Authority .
   Google Scholar
• Armstrong , T. , Bauman , A. and Davies , J. 2000 . Physical activity patterns of Australian adults. Results of the 1999 National Physical Activity Survey , Canberra : Australian Institute of Health and Welfare .
   Google Scholar
• Arnett , J. J. 2004 . Emerging adulthood: The winding road from late teens through the twenties , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Australian Institute of Health and Welfare . 2003 . Indicators of health risk factors: The AIHW Review , Canberra : AIHW .
   Google Scholar
• Berger , B. G. and Tobar , D. A. 2007 . “ Physical activity and quality of life ” . In Handbook of sport psychology , 3rd ed. , Edited by: Tenenbaum , G. and Eklund , R. C. 598 – 620 . Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons .
   Google Scholar
• Biddle , S. H. J. and Mutrie , N. 2001 . Psychology of physical activity: Determinants, well-being and interventions , London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Brown , W. J. and Bauman , A. 2000 . Comparison of estimates of population levels of physical activity using two measures . Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health , 24 : 520 – 525 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , W. J. , Trost , S. G. , Bauman , A. , Mummery , K. and Owen , N. 2004 . Test-retest reliability of four physical activity measures used in population surveys . Journal of Science Medical Sport , 7 : 205 – 215 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caspersen , C. J. , Pereira , M. A. and Curran , K. M. 2000 . Changes in physical activity patterns in the United States, by sex and cross-sectional age . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 32 : 1601 – 1609 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caspersen , C. J. , Powell , K. E. and Christenson , G. M. 1985 . Physical activity, exercise and physical fitness: definitions and distinctions for health-related research . Public Health Reports , 100 : 126 – 131 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen , J. 1988 . Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences , 2nd ed. , Hillsdale, NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Commonwealth Department of Health and Family Services . 1998 . Developing an Active Australia: A framework for action for physical activity and health , Sydney : Department of Education, Science and Training, Commonwealth of Australia .
   Google Scholar
• Csikszentmihalyi , M. 1990 . Flow: The psychology of optimal experience , New York : Harper and Row .
   Google Scholar
• Csikszentmihalyi , M. 2000 . Beyond boredom and anxiety , San Francisco : Jossey-Bass .
   Google Scholar
• Csikszentmihalyi , M. and Csikszentmihalyi , I. 1988 . Optimal experience: Psychological studies of flow in consciousness , Cambridge, UK : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Davison , K. K. , Cutting , T. M. and Birch , L. L. 2003 . Parents’ activity-related parenting practices predict girls’ physical activity . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 35 : 1589 – 1595 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dubbert , P. M. 2002 . Physical activity and exercise: Recent advances and current challenges . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 70 : 526 – 536 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eccles , J. S. , Midgely , C. , Wigfield , A. , Miller-Buchanan , C. , Reuman , D. Flanagan , C. 1993 . Development during adolescence: The impact of stage-environment fit on young adolescent's experiences in school and in families . American Psychologist , 48 : 90 – 101 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eccles , J. S. , Wigfield , A. , Midgely , C. , Reuman , D. , MacIver , D. and Freldlaufer , H. 1993 . Negative effects of traditional middle schools on students’ motivation . The Elementary School Journal , 93 : 553 – 574 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erikson , E. H. 1968 . Identity: Youth and crisis , New York : Norton .
   Google Scholar
• Graham , J. W. and Hoffer , S. M. 2000 . “ Multiple imputation in multivariate research ” . In Modeling longitudinal and multilevel data: Practical issues, applied approaches, and specific examples , Edited by: Little , T. D. , Schnable , K. U. and Baumert , J. 201 – 218 . Mahwah, NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Grusec , J. E. and Kuczynski , L. 1997 . Parenting and childrennski, L. , New York : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Hallal , P. C. , Victora , C. G. , Azevedo , M. R. and Wells , J. C. K. 2006 . Adolescent physical activity and health: A systematic review . Sports Medicine , 36 : 1019 – 1030 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamilton , K. and White , K. M. 2008 . Extending the theory of planned behavior: The role of self and social influences in predicting adolescent regular moderate-to-vigorous physical activity . Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology , 30 : 56 – 74 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson , S. A. 1996 . Toward a conceptual understanding of the flow experience in elite athletes . Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport , 67 : 76 – 90 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson , S. A. and Csikszentmihalyi , M. 1999 . Flow in sports: The keys to optimal experiences and performances , Champaign, IL : Human Kinetics .
   Google Scholar
• Jackson , S. , Eklund , R. and Martin , A. J. 2010 . The Flow Scales: Instrumentation and Test User Manual , Menlo Park, CA : Mind Garden Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Jackson , S. A. , Martin , A. J. and Eklund , R. C. 2008 . Long and short measures of flow: Examining construct validity of the FSS-2, DFS-2, and new brief counterparts . Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology , 30 : 561 – 587 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jöreskog , K. G. and Sörbom , D. 1993 . LISREL 8: Structural equation modeling with the SIMPLIS command language , Chicago : Scientific Software International .
   Google Scholar
• Jöreskog , K. G. and Sörbom , D. 2006 . LISREL 8.80 , Chicago : Scientific Software International .
   Google Scholar
• Klomsten , A. T. , Marsh , H. W. and Skaalvik , E. M. 2005 . Adolescents’ perceptions of masculine and feminine values in sport and physical education: A study of gender differences . Sex Roles , 52 : 625 – 636 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klomsten , A. T. , Skaalvik , E. M. and Espnes , G. A. 2004 . Physical self-concept and sports: Do gender differences still exist? . Sex Roles, , 50 : 119 – 127 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landers , D. and Arent , S. 2007 . “ Physical activity and mental health ” . In Handbook of sport psychology , 3rd ed. , Edited by: Tenenbaum , G. and Eklund , R. 469 – 491 . Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons .
   Google Scholar
• Lee , R. E. , Nigg , C. R. , DiClemente , C. C. and Courneya , K. S. 2001 . Validating motivational readiness for exercise behavior with adolescents . Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport , 72 : 401 – 410 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu , P. 2003 . Transition from elementary to middle school and change in motivation: An examination of Chinese students . Journal of Research in Childhood Education , 18 : 71 – 80 .
   Google Scholar
• Looney , M. A. 1989 . “ Criterion-referenced measurement: Reliability ” . In Measurement concepts in physical education and exercise science , Edited by: Safrit , M. J. and Wood , T. M. 137 – 152 . Champaign, Illinois : Human Kinetics .
   Google Scholar
• Marcus , B. H. , Dubbert , P. M. , Forsyth , L. H. , McKenzie , T. L. , Stone , E. J. Dunn , A. L. 2000 . Physical activity behavior change: Issues in adoption and maintenance . Health Psychology , 19 : 32 – 41 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marsh , H. W. 1996 . Construct validity of Physical Self-Description Questionnaire responses: Relations to external criteria . Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology , 18 : 111 – 131 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marsh , H. W. 2002 . A multidimensional physical self-concept: A construct validity approach to theory, measurement, and research . Psychology: The Journal of the Hellenic Psychological Society , 9 : 459 – 493 .
   Google Scholar
• Marsh , H. W. , Balla , J. R. and Hau , K. T. 1996 . “ An evaluation of incremental fit indices: A clarification of mathematical and empirical processes ” . In Advanced structural equation modeling techniques , Edited by: Marcoulides , G. A. and Schumacker , R. E. 315 – 353 . Hillsdale, NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Marsh , H. W. , Balla , J. R. and McDonald , R. P. 1988 . Goodness-of-fit indices in confirmatory factor analysis: The effect of sample size . Psychological Bulletin , 102 : 391 – 410 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marsh , H. W. 2007 . Self-concept theory, measurement and research into practice: The role of self-concept in educational psychology , Leicester, UK : British Psychological Society .
   Google Scholar
• Marsh , H. W. , Hau , K. T. , Sung , R. Y. T. and Yu , C. W. 2007 . Childhood obesity, gender, actual-ideal body image discrepancies, and physical self-concept in Hong Kong . Developmental Psychology , 43 : 647 – 662 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marsh , H. W. , Hey , J. , Roche , L. A. and Perry , C. 1997 . The structure of physical self-concept: Elite athletes and physical education students . Journal of Educational Psychology , 89 : 369 – 380 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marsh , H. W. and Johnson , S. 1994 . Physical activity: Relations to field and technical indicators of physical fitness of boys and girls aged 9–15 . Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology , 16 : 83 – 101 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marsh , H. W. , Martin , A. J. and Debus , R. 2002 . “ Individual differences in verbal and math self-perceptions: One factor, two factor, or does it depend on the construct? ” . In International perspectives on individual differences , Edited by: Riding , R. and Rayner , S. London : Greenwood Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• Marsh , H. W. , Richards , G. E. , Johnson , S. , Roche , L. and Tremayne , P. 1994 . Physical Self Description Questionnaire: Psychometric properties and a multitrait-multimethod analysis of relations to existing instruments . Sport and Exercise Psychology , 16 : 270 – 305 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marshall , S. J. and Welk , G. J. 2008 . “ Definitions and measurement ” . In Youth physical activity and sedentary behavior: Challenges and solutions , Edited by: Smith , A. L. and Biddle , S. J. H. 3 – 29 . Champaign, Illinois : Human Kinetics .
   Google Scholar
• Martin , A. J. 2005 . Exploring the effects of a youth enrichment program on academic motivation and engagement . Social Psychology of Education , 8 : 179 – 206 .
   Google Scholar
• Martin , A. J. 2008a . Enhancing student motivation and engagement: The effects of a multidimensional intervention . Contemporary Educational Psychology , 33 : 239 – 269 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin , A. J. 2008b . How domain specific are motivation and engagement across school, sport, and music? A substantive-methodological synergy assessing young sportspeople and musicians . Contemporary Educational Psychology , 33 : 785 – 813 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin , A. J. 2010a . Physical activity motivation in the year following high school: Assessing stability and appropriate analytical approaches . Psychology of Sport and Exercise , 11 : 107 – 113 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin , A. J. 2010b . Physical activity motivation in late adolescence: Refinement of a recent multidimensional model . Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport , 81 : 278 – 289 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Martin , A. J. and Jackson , S. A. 2008 . Brief approaches to assessing task absorption and enhanced subjective experience: Examining ‘short’ and ‘core’ flow in diverse performance domains . Motivation and Emotion , 32 : 141 – 157 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin , A. J. and Liem , G. A. D. 2010 . Academic Personal bests (PBs), engagement, and achievement: A cross-lagged panel analysis . Learning and Individual Differences , 20 : 265 – 270 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin , A. J. , Tipler , D. V. , Marsh , H. W. , Richards , G. E. and Williams , M. R. 2006 . Assessing multidimensional physical activity motivation: A construct validity study of high-school students . Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology , 28 : 171 – 192 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin , J. J. and Cutler , K. 2002 . An exploratory examination of flow and motivation in theatre actors . Journal of Applied Sport Psychology , 14 : 344 – 352 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinez , C. , Martin , A. J. and Dowson , M. Physical health and psychological wellbeing: Measurement and research . Self-concept, Motivation, Social and Personal Identity for the 21st Century , Edited by: Craven , R. G. , Eccles , J. S. and Ha , T. M. Sydney, Australia : SELF Research Centre . Proceedings of the Fourth International Biennial SELF Research Conference
   Google Scholar
• McDonald , R. P. and Marsh , H. W. 1990 . Choosing a multivariate model: Noncentrality and goodness-of-fit . Psychological Bulletin , 107 : 247 – 255 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGraw , K. O. and Wong , S. P. 1996 . Forming inferences about some intra-class correlation coefficients . Psychological Methods, Psychological Methods , : 30 – 46 .
   Google Scholar
• Moag-Stahlberg , A. , Miles , A. and Marcello , M. 2003 . What kids say they do and what parents think kids are doing: The ADAF/Knowledge networks 2003 family nutrition and physical activity study . Journal of the American Dietetic Association , 103 : 1541 – 1546 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore , L. L. , Lombardi , D. A. , White , J. L. , Oliveria , S. A. and Ellison , R. C. 1991 . Influence of parents’ physical activity levels on activity levels of young children . Journal of Pediatrics , 118 : 215 – 219 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murcia , J. A. M. , Gimeno , E. C. and Coll , D. G.-C. 2008 . Relationships among goal orientations, motivational climate and flow in adolescent athletes: Differences by gender . The Spanish Journal of Psychology , 11 : 181 – 191 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nigg , C. R. 2002 . “ Physical activity assessment in population based interventions: A stage approach ” . In Physical activity assessments for health-related research , Edited by: Welk , G. 227 – 240 . Champaign, Illinois : Human Kinetics .
   Google Scholar
• Nigg , C. R. and Courneya , K. S. 1998 . Transtheoretical model: Examining adolescent exercise behavior . Journal of Adolescent Health , 22 : 214 – 224 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Mara , A. J. , Marsh , H. W. , Craven , R. G. and Debus , R. L. 2006 . Do self-concept interventions make a difference? A synergistic blend of construct validation and meta-analysis . Educational Psychologist , 41 : 181 – 206 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osborne , J. W. 2008 . Sweating the small stuff in educational psychology: How effect size and power reporting failed to change from 1969 to 1999, and what that means for the future of changing practices . Educational Psychology , 28 : 151 – 160 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pallant , J. 2001 . SPSS survival manual , Crows Nest, New South Wales : Allen & Unwin .
   Google Scholar
• Parker , P. D. , Martin , A. J. , Martinez , C. , Marsh , H. W. and Jackson , S. A. 2010 . Stages of change in physical activity: A validation study of late adolescents . Health Education and Behavior , 37 : 318 – 329 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pereira , A. and Pooley , J. A. 2007 . A qualitative exploration of the transition experience of students from a high school to a senior high school in Rural Western Australia . Australian Journal of Education , 51 : 162 – 177 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plotnikoff , R. C. , Hotz , S. B. , Birkett , N. J. and Courneya , K. S. 2001 . Exercise and the Transtheoretical Model . Preventive Medicine , 33 : 441 – 452 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Powell , K. E. and Blair , S. N. 1994 . The public health burdens of sedentary living habits: theoretical but realistic estimates . Medical Science Sports Exercise , 26 : 851 – 856 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell , W. D. 2001 . An examination of flow state occurrence in college athletes . Journal of Sport Behavior , 24 : 83 – 107 .
   Google Scholar
• Sallis , J. F. 2000 . Age-related decline in physical activity: A synthesis of human and animal studies . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 32 : 1598 – 1600 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schumacker , R. E. and Lomax , R. G. 1996 . A beginner's guide to structural equation modeling , Mahwah, NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Smith , A. L. and Biddle , S. J. H. 2008 . “ Youth physical activity and sedentary behavior: Challenges and solutions ” . Champaign, Illinois : Human Kinetics .
   Google Scholar
• Stein , G. L. , Kimiecik , J. C. , Daniels , J. and Jackson , S. A. 1995 . Psychological antecedents of flow in recreational sport . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 21 : 125 – 135 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevens , J. 1996 . Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences , Mahway, NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Telama , R. and Yang , X. 2000 . Decline of physical activity from youth to young adulthood in Finland . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 32 : 1617 – 1622 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services . 1996 . Physical activity and health: A report of the Surgeon General , Atlanta, GA : MacMillan Press .
   Google Scholar
• Van Mechelen , W. , Twisk , J. W. R. and Post , G. B. 2000 . Physical activity in young people: The Amsterdam Longitudinal Growth and Health Study . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 32 : 1610 – 1616 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wankel , L. M. 1993 . The importance of enjoyment to adherence and psychological benefits from physical activity . International Journal of Sport Psychology , 24 : 151 – 169 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wooden , M. , Robertson , F. and Dawkins , P. 1994 . Part-time employment and participation in higher education . Australian Journal of Education , 38 : 250 – 265 .
   Google Scholar
• Woods , C. , Mutrie , N. and Scott , M. 1999 . More students, more active, more often: Exercise behavior change in a student population (abstract) . Journal of Sports Sciences , 17 : 75 – 76 .
   Google Scholar
• Youngstedt , S. D. , O’Connor , P. J. and Dishman , R. K. 1997 . The effects of acute exercise on sleep: A quantitative synthesis . Sleep , 20 : 203 – 214 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar