An Outcome- and Process-Oriented Examination of a Golf-Specific Secondary Task Strategy to Prevent Choking Under Pressure

REFERENCES

• Allport , D. A. , Antonis , B. and Reynolds , P. 1972 . On the division of attention: A disproof of the single channel hypothesis . Quarterly Journal of Experimental , 24 : 225 – 235 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson , J. R. 1982 . Acquisition of a cognitive skill . Psychological Review , 89 : 369 – 406 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arutyunyan , G. H. , Gurfinkel , V. S. and Mirskii , M. L. 1968 . Investigation of aiming at a target . Biophysics , 13 : 536 – 538 .
   Google Scholar
• Baumeister , R. F. 1984 . Choking under pressure: Self-consciousness and paradoxical effects of incentives on skillful performance . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 46 : 610 – 620 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beilock , S. L. , Bertenthal , B. I. , McCoy , A. M. and Carr , T. H. 2004 . Haste does not always make waste: Expertise, direction of attention, and speed versus accuracy in performing sensorimotor skills . Psychonomic Bulletin & Review , 11 : 373 – 379 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beilock , S. L. and Carr , T. H. 2001 . On the fragility of skilled performance: What governs choking under pressure? . Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 130 : 701 – 725 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beilock , S. L. and Carr , T. H. 2004 . “ From novice to expert performance: Attention, memory, and the control of complex sensorimotor skills ” . In Skill acquisition in sport: Research, theory and practice , Edited by: Williams , A. M. , Hodges , N. J. , Scott , M. A. and Court , M. L. J. 309 – 328 . London: Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Beilock , S. L. , Carr , T. H. , MacMahon , C. and Starkes , J. L. 2002 . When paying attention becomes counterproductive: Impact of divided versus skill-focused attention on novice and experienced performance of sensorimotor skills . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied , 8 : 6 – 16 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beilock , S. L. and Gray , R. 2007 . “ Why do athletes choke under pressure? ” . In Handbook of Sport Psychology (3rd ed. , Edited by: Tenenbaum , G. and Eklund , R. C. 425 – 444 . Hoboken , NJ : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Bell , J. J. and Hardy , J. 2009 . Effects of attentional focus on skilled performance in golf . Journal of Applied Sport Psychology , 21 : 163 – 177 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bootsma , R. J. and van Wieringen , P. W. C. 1990 . Timing an attacking forehand drive in table tennis . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance , 16 : 21 – 29 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castaneda , B. and Gray , R. 2007 . Effects of focus of attention on baseball batting performance in players of differing skill levels . Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology , 29 : 60 – 77 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen , J. 1992 . A power primer . Psychological Bulletin , 112 : 155 – 159 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davids , K. 2007 . Increases in jump-and-reach height through an external focus of attention: A commentary . International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching , 2 : 285 – 288 .
   Google Scholar
• Davids , K. , Button , C. and Bennet , S. 2008 . Dynamics of skill acquisition: A constraints-led approach , Champaign , IL : Human Kinetics Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• Davids , K. , Glazier , P. , Araújo , D. and Bartlett , R. 2003 . Movement systems as dynamical systems: The functional role of variability and its implications for sports medicine . Sports Medicine , 33 : 245 – 260 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davids , K. , Handford , C. H. and Williams , A. M. 1994 . The natural physical alternative to cognitive theories of motor behaviour: An invitation for interdisciplinary research in sports science? . Journal of Sports Sciences , 12 : 495 – 528 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ericsson , K. A. 2006 . “ An introduction to The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance: Its development, organization, and content ” . In The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance , Edited by: Ericsson , K. A. , Charness , N. , Hoffman , R. R. and Feltovich , P. J. 3 – 20 . Cambridge , UK : Cambridge UP .
   Google Scholar
• Eysenck , M. W. and Calvo , M. G. 1992 . Anxiety and performance: The processing efficiency theory . Cognition and Emotion , 6 : 409 – 434 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fitts , P. M. and Posner , M. I. 1967 . Human performance , Belmont , CA : Brooks/Cole .
   Google Scholar
• Glazier , P. S. , Wheat , J. S. , Pease , D. L. and Bartlett , R. M. 2006 . “ The interface of biomechanics and motor control: Dynamic systems theory and the functional role of movement variability ” . In Movement system variability , Edited by: Davids , K. , Bennett , S. and Newell , K. 49 – 69 . Champaign , IL : Human Kinetics Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• Gray , R. 2004 . Attending to the execution of a complex sensorimotor skill: Expertise differences, choking and slumps . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied , 10 : 42 – 54 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Handford , C. 2006 . “ Serving up variability and stability ” . In Movement system variability , Edited by: Davids , K. , Bennett , S. and Newell , K. 73 – 83 . Champaign , IL : Human Kinetics Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• Hardy , L. , Mullen , R. and Jones , G. 1996 . Knowledge and conscious control of motor actions under stress . British Journal of Psychology , 87 : 621 – 636 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higuchi , T. , Imanaka , K. and Hatayama , T. 2002 . Freezing degrees of freedom under stress: Kinematic evidence of constrained movement strategies . Human Movement Science , 21 : 831 – 846 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson , R. C. , Ashford , K. J. and Norsworthy , G. 2006 . Attentional focus, dispositional reinvestment, and skilled motor performance under pressure . Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology , 28 : 49 – 68 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katsumata , H. 2007 . A functional modulation for timing a movement: A coordinative structure in baseball hitting . Human Movement Science , 26 : 27 – 47 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimble , G. A. and Perlmuter , L. C. 1970 . The problem of volition . Psychological Review , 77 : 361 – 384 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koenig , G. , Tamres , M. and Mann , R. W. 1994 . “ The biomechanics of the shoe-ground interaction in golf ” . In Science and golf II: Proceedings of the 1994 Scientific Congress of Golf , Edited by: Cochran , A. J. and Farrally , F. R. 40 – 45 . London : E & FN Spon .
   Google Scholar
• Leavitt , J. 1979 . Cognitive demands of skating and stick handling in ice hockey . Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences , 4 : 46 – 55 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lewis , B. and Linder , D. 1997 . Thinking about choking? Attentional processes and paradoxical performance . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 23 : 937 – 944 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lohse , K. R. , Sherwood , D. E. and Healy , A. F. 2010 . How changing the focus of attention affects performance, kinematics, and electromyography in dart throwing . Human Movement Science , 29 : 542 – 555 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masters , R. S. W. 1992 . Knowledge, knerves and know-how: The role of explicit versus implicit knowledge in the breakdown of a complex motor skill under pressure . British Journal of Psychology , 83 : 343 – 358 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masters , R. S. W. and Maxwell , J. P. 2004 . “ Implicit motor learning, reinvestment and movement disruption: What you don't know won't hurt you? ” . In Skill Acquisition in Sport: Research, Theory and Practice , Edited by: Williams , A. M. and Hodges , N. J. 207 – 228 . London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Masters , R. S. W. and Maxwell , J. P. 2008 . The theory of reinvestment . International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology , 1 : 160 – 183 .
   Google Scholar
• Mesagno , C. , Marchant , D. and Morris , T. 2009 . Alleviating choking: The sounds of distraction . Journal of Applied Sport Psychology , 21 : 131 – 147 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mullen , R. and Hardy , L. 2000 . State anxiety and motor performance: Testing the conscious processing hypothesis . Journal of Sports Sciences , 18 : 785 – 799 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mullen , R. , Hardy , L. and Tattersall , A. 2005 . The effect of anxiety on motor performance: A test of the conscious processing hypothesis . Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology , 27 : 212 – 225 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Müller , H. and Sternard , D. 2004 . Decomposition of variability in the execution of goal oriented tasks: Three components of skill improvement . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance , 30 : 212 – 233 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newell , K. M. and Corcos , D. M. 1993 . “ Issues in variability and motor control ” . In Variability and motor control , Edited by: Newell , K. M. and Corcos , D. M. 1 – 12 . Champaign , IL : Human Kinetics .
   Google Scholar
• Perkins-Ceccato , N. , Passmore , S. R. and Lee , T. D. 2003 . Effects of focus of attention depend on golfers’ skill . Journal of Sport Sciences , 21 : 593 – 600 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pijpers , J. R. , Oudejans , R. D. , Holsheimer , F. and Bakker , F. C. 2003 . Anxiety–performance relationships in climbing: a process-oriented approach . Psychology of Sport and Exercise , 4 : 283 – 304 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reeves , J. L. , Tenenbaum , G. and Lidor , R. 2007 . Choking in front of the goal: The effects of self-consciousness training . International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology , 3 : 240 – 254 .
   Google Scholar
• Sidaway , B. , Sekiya , H. and Fairweather , M. 1995 . Movement variability as a function of accuracy demand in programmed serial aiming responses . Journal of Motor Behavior , 27 : 67 – 76 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , M. D. and Chamberlin , C. J. 1992 . Effect of adding cognitively demanding tasks on soccer skill performance . Perceptual and Motor Skills , 75 : 955 – 961 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stretch , R. A. , Bartlett , R. and Davids , K. 2000 . A review of batting in men's cricket . Journal of Sports Sciences , 18 : 931 – 949 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tabachnick , B. G. and Fidell , L. S. 2001 . Using Multivariate Statistics , 4th ed. , Boston , MA : Allyn and Bacon .
   Google Scholar
• USGA. 2011 . Men's USGA Handicap Index Statistics Retrieved June 28, 2011 from http://www.usga.org/handicapping/articles_resources/Men-s-USGA-Handicap-Indexes/.
   Google Scholar
• Valiante , G. and Stachura , M. 2005 . Fearless golf: Conquering the mental game , New York , NY : Doubleday .
   Google Scholar
• Wulf , G. 2007 . Attention and motor skill learning , Champaign , IL : Human Kinetics .
   Google Scholar
• Wulf , G. and Prinz , W. 2001 . Directing attention to movement effects enhances learning: A review . Psychonomic Bulletin & Review , 8 : 648 – 660 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wulf , G. and Su , J. 2007 . An external focus of attention enhances golf shot accuracy in beginners and experts . Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport , 78 : 384 – 389 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zachry , T. , Wulf , G. , Mercer , J. and Bezodis , N. 2004 . Increased movement accuracy and reduced EMG activity as the result of adopting an external focus of attention . Brain Research Bulletin , 67 : 304 – 309 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar