20,913
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

The what, why, and how of goal setting: A review of the goal-setting process in applied sport psychology practice

Pages 75-97 | Received 01 Oct 2022, Accepted 24 Feb 2023, Published online: 15 Mar 2023

References

  • Barker, J. B., Slater, M. J., Pugh, G., Mellalieu, S. D., McCarthy, P. J., Jones, M. V., & Moran, A. (2020). The effectiveness of psychological skills training and behavioral interventions in sport using single-case designs: A meta regression analysis of the peer-reviewed studies. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 51, 101746. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2020.101746
  • Bartholomew, K. J., Ntoumanis, N., & Thøgersen-Ntoumani, C. (2009). A review of controlling motivational strategies from a self-determination theory perspective: Implications for sports coaches. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 2, 215–233. https://doi.org/10.1080/17509840903235330
  • Bell, A. F., Knight, C. J., Lovett, V. E., & Shearer, C. (2022). Understanding elite youth athletes’ knowledge and perceptions of sport psychology. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 34, 155–177. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2020.1719556
  • Bird, M. D., Castillo, E. A., & Luzzeri, M. (2021). Performance profiling: Theoretical foundations, applied implementations and practitioner reflections. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 12, 213–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/21520704.2020.1822970
  • Botterill, C. (1983). Goal setting for athletes with examples from hockey. In G. L. Martin, & D Hrycaiko (Eds.), Behavior modification and coaching: Principles, procedures, and research. Charles C. Thomas.
  • Brandstätter, V., & Bernecker, K. (2022). Persistence and disengagement in personal goal pursuit. Annual Review of Psychology, 73, 271–299. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-020821-110710
  • Brown, D. J., & Fletcher, D. (2017). Effects of psychological and psychosocial interventions on sport performance: A meta-analysis. Sports Medicine, 47(1), 77–99. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-016-0552-7
  • Burton, D. (1989). Winning isn’t everything: Examining the impact of performance goals on collegiate swimmers’ cognitions and performance. The Sport Psychologist, 3, 105–132. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.3.2.105
  • Burton, D., & Raedeke, T. D. (2008). Sport psychology for coaches. Human Kinetics.
  • Burton, D., & Weiss, C. (2008). The fundamental goal concept: The path to process and performance success. In T. S. Horn (Ed.), Advances in sport psychology (3rd ed., pp. 339–376). Human Kinetics.
  • Burton, D., Naylor, S., & Holliday, B. (2001). Goal setting in sport: Investigating the goal effectiveness paradox. In R. N. Singer, H. A. Hausenblas, & C. M. Janelle (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (2nd ed., pp. 497–528). John Wiley & Sons.
  • Butt, J., & Weinberg, R. (2020). Goal-setting in sport. In D. Hackfort & R. Schinke (Eds.), The Routledge international encyclopedia of sport and exercise psychology: Applied and practical measures (Vol. 1; pp. 333–342). Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.
  • Chambers, T. P., Harangozo, G., & Mallett, C. J. (2019). Supporting elite athletes in a new age: experiences of personal excellence advisers within Australia’s high-performance sporting environment. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 11, 650–670. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2019.1605404
  • Chow, G. M., & Luzzeri, M. (2019). Post-event reflection: A tool to facilitate self-awareness, self-monitoring, and self-regulation in athletes. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 10, 106–118. https://doi.org/10.1080/21520704.2018.1555565
  • Donovan, J. J., & Williams, K. J. (2003). Missing the mark: Effects of time and causal attributions on goal revision in response to goal-performance discrepancies. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(3), 379–390. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.3.379
  • Doran, G. T. (1981). There’s a SMART way to write management’s goals and objectives. Management Review, 70, 35–36.
  • Durdubas, D., & Koruc, Z. (2022). Effects of a multifaceted team goal-setting intervention for youth volleyball teams. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, Advanced Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2021.2021564
  • Durdubas, D., Martin, L. J., & Koruc, Z. (2020). A season-long goal-setting intervention for elite youth basketball teams. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 32, 529–545. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2019.1593258
  • Earley, P. C., Northcraft, G. B., Lee, C., & Lituchy, T. R. (1990). Impact of process and outcome feedback on the relation of goal setting to task performance. Academy of Management Journal, 33, 87–105. https://doi.org/10.5465/256353
  • Gano-Overway, L., & Carson Sackett, S. (2021). Let’s get smart and set goals to ASPIRE. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action,2021, 1–15. Advanced online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/21520704.2021.2007192
  • Gillham, A., & Weiler, D. (2013). Goal setting with a college soccer team: What went right, and less-than-right. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 4, 97–108. https://doi.org/10.1080/21520704.2013.764560
  • Gregg, M. J., Hrycaiko, D., Mactavish, J. B., & Martin, G. L. (2004). A mental skills package for Special Olympics athletes: A preliminary study. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 21, 4–18. https://doi.org/10.1123/apaq.21.1.4
  • Hampson, R., & Harwood, C. (2016). Case Study 2: Employing a group goal setting intervention within an elite sport setting. Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, 12, 22–31. https://doi.org/10.53841/bpssepr.2016.12.2.22
  • Hardy, L. (1997). The Coleman Roberts Griffith address: Three myths about applied consultancy work. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 9, 277–294. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413209708406487
  • Harkin, B., Webb, T. L., Chang, B. P., Prestwich, A., Conner, M., Kellar, I., Benn, Y., & Sheeran, P. (2016). Does monitoring goal progress promote goal attainment? A meta-analysis of the experimental evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 142(2), 198–229. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000025
  • Harter, S. (1978). Effectance motivation reconsidered. Toward a developmental model. Human Development, 21, 34–64. https://doi.org/10.1159/000271574
  • Harwood, C. G. (2004). Goals: More than just the score. In S. Murphy (Ed.), The sport psych handbook (pp. 19–36). Human Kinetics.
  • Healy, L. C., Ntoumanis, N., & Duda, J. L. (2016). Goal motives and multiple-goal striving in sport and academia: A person-centered investigation of goal motives and inter-goal relations. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 19(12), 1010–1014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2016.03.001
  • Healy, L., Tincknell-Smith, A., & Ntoumanis, N. (2018). Goal setting in sport and performance. In Oxford research encyclopedia of psychology. Oxford University Press.
  • Jeong, Y. H., Healy, L. C., & McEwan, D. (2021). The application of goal setting theory to goal setting interventions in sport: A systematic review. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1–26. Advanced online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2021.1901298
  • Kingston, K. M., & Wilson, K. M. (2008). The application of goal setting in sport. In Advances in applied sport psychology (pp. 85–133). Routledge.
  • Kirschenbaum, D. S. (1987). Self-regulation of sport performance. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 19, 106–113.
  • Klein, H. J., Wesson, M. J., Hollenbeck, J. R., & Alge, B. J. (1999). Goal commitment and the goal-setting process: Conceptual clarification and empirical synthesis. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 84(6), 885–896. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.84.6.885
  • Kyllo, L. B., & Landers, D. M. (1995). Goal setting in sport and exercise: A research synthesis to resolve the controversy. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 17, 117–137. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.17.2.117
  • Latham, G. P., & Locke, E. A. (1991). Self-regulation through goal setting. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 212–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90021-K
  • Lochbaum, M., & Gottardy, J. (2015). A meta-analytic review of the approach-avoidance achievement goals and performance relationships in the sport psychology literature. Journal of Sport and Health Science, 4, 164–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2013.12.004
  • Lochbaum, M., Stoner, E., Hefner, T., Cooper, S., Lane, A. M., & Terry, P. C. (2022). Sport psychology and performance meta-analyses: A systematic review of the literature. PLoS One, 17(2), e0263408. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263408
  • Locke, E. A. (1968). Toward a theory of task motivation and incentives. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 3, 157–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(68)90004-4
  • Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1985). The application of goal setting to sports. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 7, 205–222. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsp.7.3.205
  • Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting & task performance. Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2013). New developments in goal setting and task performance. Routledge.
  • Maitland, A., & Gervis, M. (2010). Goal-setting in youth football. Are coaches missing an opportunity? Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 15, 323–343. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408980903413461
  • Martens, R. (1991). Coaches guide to sport psychology. Human Kinetics.
  • Martin, L. J., Carron, A. V., & Burke, S. M. (2009). Team building interventions in sport: A meta-analysis. Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, 5, 3–18. https://doi.org/10.53841/bpssepr.2009.5.2.3
  • McCarthy, P. J., Jones, M. V., Harwood, C. G., & Davenport, L. (2010). Using goal setting to enhance positive affect among junior multievent athletes. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 4, 53–68. https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.4.1.53
  • McCarthy, P. J., Jones, M. V., Harwood, C. G., & Olivier, S. (2010). What do young athletes implicitly understand about psychological skills? Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 4, 158–172. https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.4.2.158
  • McEwan, D., & Beauchamp, M. R. (2020). Teamwork training in sport: A pilot intervention study. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 32, 220–236. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2018.1518277
  • Neubert, M. J. (1998). The value of feedback and goal setting over goal setting alone and potential moderators of this effect: A meta-analysis. Human Performance, 11, 321–335. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327043hup1104_2
  • Nicholls, J. G. (1989). The competitive ethos and democratic education. Harvard University Press.
  • Ntoumanis, N., & Sedikides, C. (2018). Holding on to the goal or letting it go and moving on? A tripartite model of goal striving. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 27, 363–368. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721418770455
  • Ntoumanis, N., Healy, L. C., Sedikides, C., Duda, J., Stewart, B., Smith, A., & Bond, J. (2014). When the going gets tough: The “why” of goal striving matters. Journal of Personality, 82(3), 225–236. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12047
  • Oettingen, G. (2012). Future thought and behaviour change. European Review of Social Psychology, 23, 1–63. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2011.643698
  • Pierce, B. E., & Burton, D. (1998). Scoring the perfect 10: Investigating the impact of goal-setting styles on a goal-setting program for female gymnasts. The Sport Psychologist, 12, 156–168. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.12.2.156
  • Pop, R. M., Grosu, E. F., & Zadic, A. (2021). A systematic review of goal setting interventions to improve sports performance. Studia Educatio Artis Gymnasticae, 1, 35–50. https://doi.org/10.24193/subbeag.66(1).04
  • Popay, J., Roberts, H., Sowden, A., Petticrew, M., Arai, L., Rodgers, M., Britten, N., Roen, K., & Duffy, S. (2006). Guidance on the conduct of narrative synthesis in systematic reviews: A product from the ESRC methods programme. Lancaster University.
  • Quartiroli, A., Moore, E. W. G., & Zakrajsek, R. A. (2022). Strength and conditioning coaches’ perceptions of sport psychology strategies. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 36(5), 1327–1334. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000003651
  • Rovio, E., Arvinen-Barrow, M., Weigand, D. A., Eskola, J., & Lintunen, T. (2012). Using team building methods with an Ice Hockey team: An action research case study. Sport Psychologist, 26, 584–603. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.26.4.584
  • Sheldon, K. M., & Elliot, A. J. (1999). Goal striving, need satisfaction, and longitudinal well-being: The self-concordance model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(3), 482–497. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.76.3.482
  • Shoenfelt, E. L. (2011). Values Added” teambuilding: a process to ensure understanding, acceptance, and commitment to team values. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 1, 150–160. https://doi.org/10.1080/21520704.2010.550989
  • Smith, R. E. (2015). A positive approach to coaching effectiveness and performance enhancement. In J. M. Williams & V. Krane (Eds.), Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (7th ed., pp. 40–56). McGraw-Hill Education.
  • South, G. M. (2004). The roadmap: Examining the impact of periodization, and particularly goal term length, on the self-confidence of collegiate tennis players [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Idaho.
  • Stambulova, N. B., & Schinke, R. J. (2017). Experts focus on the context: Postulates derived from the authors’ shared experiences and wisdom. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 8, 131–134. https://doi.org/10.1080/21520704.2017.1308715
  • Storm, L. K., & Larsen, C. H. (2020). Context-driven sport psychology: A cultural lens. In D. Hackfort & R. Schinke (Eds.), The Routledge international encyclopedia of sport and exercise psychology  (pp. 73–83). Routledge.
  • Swann, C., Crust, L., Jackman, P., Vella, S. A., Allen, M. S., & Keegan, R. (2017). Psychological states underlying excellent performance in sport: Toward an integrated model of flow and clutch states. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 29, 375–401. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2016.1272650
  • Swann, C., Jackman, P. C., Lawrence, A., Hawkins, R. M., Goddard, S. G., Williamson, O., Schweickle, M. J., Vella, S. A., Rosenbaum, S., & Ekkekakis, P. (2022). The (over) use of SMART goals for physical activity promotion: A narrative review and critique. Health Psychology Review, 2022, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2021.2023608
  • Symonds, M. L., & Tapps, T. (2016). Goal-prioritization for teachers, coaches, and students: A developmental model. Strategies, 29, 34–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/08924562.2016.1159155
  • Tod, D. (2014). Sport psychology: The basics. Routledge.
  • Tod, D., & McGuigan, M. (2001). Maximizing strength training through goal setting. Strength & Conditioning Journal, 23, 22–27.
  • Vealey, R. S. (1988). Future directions in psychological skills training. The Sport Psychologist, 2, 318–336. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2.4.318
  • Vealey, R. S. (2005). Coaching for the inner edge. Fitness Information Technology.
  • Vysochina, N., & Vorobiova, A. (2017). Goal-setting in sport and the algorithm of its realization. Ştiinţa Culturii Fizice, 2, 108–112.
  • Wang, G., Wang, Y., & Gai, X. (2021). A meta-analysis of the effects of mental contrasting with implementation intentions on goal attainment. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 565202. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.565202
  • Wanlin, C. M., Hrycaiko, D. W., Martin, G. L., & Mahon, M. (1997). The effects of a goal-setting package on the performance of speed skaters. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 9, 212–228. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413209708406483
  • Ward, P. (2011). Goal setting and performance feedback. In Behavioral sport psychology (pp. 99–112). Springer.
  • Weinberg, R. S. (2013). Goal setting in sport and exercise: Research and practical applications. Revista da Educação Física/UEM, 24, 171–179. https://doi.org/10.4025/reveducfis.v24i2.17524
  • Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2015). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology (6th ed.). Human Kinetics.
  • Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2019). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology (7th ed.). Human Kinetics.
  • Weinberg, R. S., Harmison, R. J., Rosenkranz, R., & Hookom, S. (2005). Goal setting. In J. Taylor & G. Wilson (Eds.), Applying sport psychology: Four perspectives (pp. 101–116). Human Kinetics.
  • Weinberg, R. S., & Williams, J. M. (2015). Integrating and implementing a psychological skills training program. In J. M. Williams & V. Krane (Eds.), Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (7th ed., pp. 329–358). McGraw-Hill.
  • Widmeyer, W. N., & Ducharme, K. (1997). Team building through team goal setting. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 9, 97–113. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413209708415386
  • Williamson, O., Swann, C., Bennett, K. J., Bird, M. D., Goddard, S. G., Schweickle, M. J., & Jackman, P. C. (2022). The performance and psychological effects of goal setting in sport: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1–29. Advanced online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2022.2116723
  • Winter, G. (1995). Goal setting. In T. Morris & J. Summers (Eds.). Sport psychology: Theory, applications and issue (pp. 259–270). John Wiley & Sons.
  • Wrosch, C., & Scheier, M. F. (2020). Adaptive self-regulation, subjective well-being, and physical health: The importance of goal adjustment capacities. In A. J. Elliot (Ed.), Advances in motivation science (Vol. 7, pp. 199–238). Elsevier.
  • Young, B. W., Medic, N., & Starkes, J. L. (2009). Effects of self-monitoring training logs on behaviors and beliefs of swimmers. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 21, 413–428. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200903222889