Sports officials and parentsFootnote

1 For the purposes of this article, the term parents is used to refer to parents, guardians, primary caregivers etc.

as spectators: Diffusing tensions on the sidelines

References

• Ackery, A. D., Tator, C. H., & Snider, C. (2012). Violence in Canadian Amateur Hockey: The experience of referees in Ontario. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine: Official Journal of the Canadian Academy of Sport Medicine, 22(2), 86–90. https://doi.org/10.1097/JSM.0b013e3182342b69
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Badshah, N. (2019). Primary school bans parents from sports day for bad behavior. https://www.theguardian.com/education/2019/jun/30/primary-school-bans-parents-from-sports-day-for-bad-behavior
   Google Scholar
• Bekker, S., & Posbergh, A. (2022). Safeguarding in sports settings: Unpacking a conflicting identity. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 14(2), 181–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2021.1920456
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bois, J. E., Lalanne, J., & Delforge, C. (2009). The influence of parenting practices and parental presence on children’s and adolescents’ pre-competitive anxiety. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27(10), 995–1005. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410903062001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowker, A., Boekhoven, B., Nolan, A., Bauhaus, S., Glover, P., Powell, T., & Taylor, S. (2009). Naturalistic observations of spectator behavior at youth hockey games. The Sport Psychologist, 23(3), 301–316. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.23.3.301
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bronfenbrenner, U. (2005). Ecological systems theory. In U. Bronfenbrenner (Ed.), Making human beings human: Bioecological perspectives on human development (pp. 106–173). Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Burke, S., Sharp, L. A., Woods, D., & Paradis, K. F. (2021). Enhancing parental support through parent-education programs in youth sport: A systematic review. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2021.1992793
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burke, S., Sharp, L. A., Woods, D., & Paradis, K. F. (2023). Advancing a grounded theory of parental support in competitive girls’ golf.  Psychology of Sport and Exercise,  66, 102400. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1469029223000249 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2023.102400
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cleland, J., O’Gorman, J., & Bond, M. (2015). The English Football Association’s Respect Campaign: The referees’ view. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 7(4), 551–563. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2015.1088050
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cleland, J., O’Gorman, J., & Webb, T. (2018). Respect? An investigation into the experience of referees in association football. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 53(8), 960–974. https://doi.org/10.1177/1012690216687979
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dawson, P., Webb, T., & Downward, P. (2022). Abuse is not a zero-sum game! The case for zero tolerance of match official physical and verbal abuse. European Journal of Sport Science, 22(3), 417–424. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2021.1881619
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeFrancesco, C., & Johnson, P. (1997). Athlete and parent perceptions in junior tennis. Journal of Sport Behavior, 22, 29–36.
   Google Scholar
• Dorsch, T. E., Smith, A. L., Blazo, J. A., Coakley, J., Côté, J., Wagstaff, C. R. D., Warner, S., & King, M. Q. (2022). Toward an integrated understanding of the youth sport system. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 93(1), 105–119. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2020.1810847
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dorsch, T. E., Wright, E., Eckardt, V. C., Elliot, S., Thrower, S. N., & Knight, C. J. (2021). A history of parent involvement in organized youth sport: A scoping review. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 10(4), 536–557. https://doi.org/10.1037/spy0000266
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Downward, P., Webb, T., & Dawson, P. (2023). Referee abuse, intention to quit and well-being. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2023.2184459
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eckardt, V. C., Dorsch, T. E., & Lobinger, B. H. (2022). Parents’ competitive stressors in professional German youth soccer academies: A mixed-method study. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 58, 102089. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2021.102089
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliott, S., & Drummond, M. (2015). The (limited) impact of sport policy on parental behavior in youth sport: a qualitative inquiry in junior Australian football. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 7(4), 519–530. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2014.971850
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• England Athletics (n.d). UK Athletics and HCAF parent and carer code of conduct. https://www.englandathletics.org/clubhub/resource/parent-and-carer-code-of-conduct/
   Google Scholar
• Goldstein, J. D., & Iso-Ahola, S. E. (2008). Determinants of parents’ sideline-rage emotions and behaviors at youth soccer games. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 38(6), 1442–1462. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2008.00355.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hancock, D. J., Bennett, S., Roaten, H., Chapman, K., & Stanley, C. (2021). An analysis of literature on sport officiating research. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 92(4), 607–617. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2020.1756198
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hancock, D. J., Dawson, D. J., & Auger, D. (2015). Why Ref? Understanding sport officials’ motivations to begin, continue, and quit. Movement and Sport Sciences, 87, 31–39. https://doi.org/10.1051/sm/2014018
   Google Scholar
• Hannigan, D. (2019). Pushy parents still ruining sport for kids in pursuit of glory. https://www.irishtimes.com/sport/other-sports/pushy-parents-still-ruining-sport-for-kids-in-pursuit-of-glory-1.4014960
   Google Scholar
• Harwood, C. G., Knight, C. J., Thrower, S. N., & Berrow, S. R. (2019). Advancing the study of parental involvement to optimize the psychosocial development and experiences of young athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 42, 66–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2019.01.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harwood, C. G., Thrower, S. N., Slater, M. J., Didymus, F. F., & Frearson, L. (2019). Advancing our understanding of psychological stress and coping among parents in organized youth sport. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1600. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01600
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holt, N. L., Kingsley, B. C., Tink, L. N., & Scherer, J. (2011). Benefits and challenges associated with sport participation by children and parents from low-income families. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 12(5), 490–499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2011.05.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holt, N. L., Tamminen, K. A., Black, D. E., Sehn, Z. L., & Wall, M. P. (2008). Parental involvement in competitive youth sport settings. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9(5), 663–685. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2007.08.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerr, G., & Stirling, A. (2019). Where is safeguarding in sport psychology research and practice? Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 31(4), 367–384. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2018.1559255
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerr, G. (2021). Next steps in the safe sport journey: From prevention of harm to optimizing experiences. The Sport Information Research Centre. https://sirc.ca/blog/next-steps-in-the-safe-sport-journey/
   Google Scholar
• Kidman, L., McKenzie, A., & McKenzie, B. (1999). The nature of target of parents’ comments during youth sport competitions. Journal of Sport Behavior, 22(1), 54.
   Google Scholar
• Knight, C. J. (2019). Revealing findings in youth sport parenting research. Kinesiology Review, 8(3), 252–259. https://doi.org/10.1123/kr.2019-0023
   Google Scholar
• Knight, C. J., Berrow, S. R., & Harwood, C. G. (2017). Parenting in sport. Current Opinion in Psychology, 16, 93–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.03.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knight, C. J., & Holt, N. L. (2014). Parenting in youth tennis: Understanding and enhancing children’s experiences. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 15(2), 155–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2013.10.010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knight, C. J., & Newport, R. A. (2017). Understanding and working with parents of young athletes. In C. J. Knight, C. G. Harwood, & D. Gould (Eds.), Sport psychology for young athletes (pp. 303–318). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Leggat, F. J., Wadey, R., Day, M. C., Winter, S., & Sanders, P. (2023). Bridging the know-do gap using integrated knowledge translation and qualitative inquiry: A narrative review. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 15(2), 188–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2021.1954074
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lienhart, N., Nicaise, V., Knight, C. J., & Guillet-Descas, E. (2020). Understanding parent stressors and coping experiences in elite sports contexts. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 9(3), 390–404. https://doi.org/10.1037/spy0000186
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mojtahedi, D., Webb, T., Leadley, C., & Jones, M. (2022). Match officials and abuse: A systematic review. European Sport Management Quarterly, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2022.2099441
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Omli, J., & LaVoi, N. M. (2012). Emotional experiences of youth sport parents I: Anger. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 24(1), 10–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2011.578102
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillipson, V. (2022). Silent support weekend. https://www.englandfootball.com/articles/2022/Oct/21/silent-support-weekend
   Google Scholar
• Pina, E. J. A., Passos, A., Araújo, D., & Maynard, M. T. (2018). Football refereeing: An integrative review. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 35, 10–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2017.10.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radziszewski, S., Parent, S., St-Pierre, E., & Fortier, J. (2023). “Never having the right to make a mistake, I think that’s the hardest part of being an official”: Exploring young sport officials’ experiences of abuse and their related coping mechanisms. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2023.2197964
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rayner, M., Webb, T., & Webb, H. (2016). The occurrence of referee abuse in rugby union: Evidence and measures through an online survey. International Journal of Sport Management, Recreation & Tourism, 21, 66–81. https://doi.org/10.5199/ijsmart-1791-874X-21d
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ross, A. J., Mallett, C. J., & Parkes, J. F. (2015). The influence of parent sport behaviours on children’s development: Youth coach and administrator perspectives. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 10(4), 605–621. https://doi.org/10.1260/1747-9541.10.4.605
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rouquette, O. Y., Knight, C. J., Lovett, V. E., Barrell, D., & Heuzé, J.-P. (2021). The positive association between perceived parental responsiveness and self-esteem, anxiety, and thriving among youth rugby players: A multigroup analysis. Journal of Sports Sciences, 39(13), 1537–1547. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2021.1883311
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rouquette, O. Y., Knight, C. J., Lovett, V. E., & Heuzé, J.-P. (2021). Effect of parent responsiveness on young athletes’ self-perceptions and thriving: An exploratory study in a Belgian French-community. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 52, 101801. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2020.101801
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rugby Football League (n.d). Parents and spectators: Code of conduct. https://www.rugby-league.com/uploads/docs/ETG%20PARENTS%20%26%20SPECTATORS%20A4.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Shaikh, M., Bean, C., Bergholz, L., Rojas, M., Ali, M., & Forneris, T. (2021). Integrating a sport- based trauma-sensitive program in a national youth-serving organization. Child & Adolescent Social Work Journal: C & A, 38(4), 449–461. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-021-00776-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, B., Williams, O., Bone, L., & the Moving Social Work Co-production Collective. (2023). Co-production: A resource to guide co-producing research in the sport, exercise, and health sciences. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 15(2), 159–187. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2022.2052946
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stirling, A. E. (2009). Definition and constituents of maltreatment in sport: Establishing a conceptual framework for research practitioners. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 43(14), 1091–1099. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2008.051433
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stirling, A. E. (2013). Understanding the use of emotionally abusive coaching practices. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 8(4), 625–639. https://doi.org/10.1260/1747-9541.8.4.625
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stirling, A. E., & Kerr, G. A. (2008). Defining and categorizing emotional abuse in sport. European Journal of Sport Science, 8(4), 173–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461390802086281
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tamminen, K. A., McEwen, C. E., Kerr, G., & Donnelly, P. (2020). Examining the impact of the Respect in Sport Parent Program on the psychosocial experiences of minor hockey athletes. Journal of Sports Sciences, 38(17), 2035–2045. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2020.1767839
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• The Football Association (FA) (2008). The FA’s vision: 2008–2012.
   Google Scholar
• The RFU (n.d). Keep your boots on. https://keepyourbootson.co.uk
   Google Scholar
• Thrower, S. N., Harwood, C. G., & Spray, C. M. (2017). Educating and supporting tennis parents: An action research study. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 9(5), 600–618. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2017.1341947
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thrower, S. N., Spray, C. M., & Harwood, C. G. (2023). Evaluating the “optimal competition parenting workshop” using the RE-AIM framework: A 4-year organizational-level intervention in British junior tennis. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 45(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2022-0080
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walters, S., Schluter, P., Stamp, D., Thomson, R., & Payne, D. (2016). Coaches and referees’ perspectives of sideline behavior in children’s team sports: A cross-sectional study. International Journal of Sport Management, Recreation & Tourism, 23, 51–74.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webb, T. (2022). Sports match official research: An evolving narrative, positioning future research. Managing Sport and Leisure, 27(3), 199–206. https://doi.org/10.1080/23750472.2020.1762304
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webb, T., Cleland, J., & O’Gorman, J. (2017). The distribution of power through a media campaign: the Respect Program, referees and abuse in association football. Journal of Global Sport Management, 2(3), 162–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/24704067.2017.1350591
   Google Scholar
• Webb, T., Dicks, M., Thelwell, R., van der Kamp, J., & Rix-Lievre, G. (2020). An analysis of soccer referee experiences in France and the Netherlands: Abuse, conflict, and level of support. Sport Management Review, 23(1), 52–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2019.03.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webb, T., Rayner, M., Cleland, J., & O’Gorman, J. (2020). Referees, match officials and abuse: Research and implications for policy. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Webb, T., Rayner, M., & Thelwell, R. (2019). An examination of match official’s perceptions of support and abuse in rugby union and cricket in England. Managing Sport and Leisure, 24(1-3), 155–172. https://doi.org/10.1080/23750472.2019.1605841
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witton, B. (2020). Wellington secondary school sport can play on but spectators not allowed. https://www.stuff.co.nz/dominion-post/sport/122459919/wellington-secondary-school-sport-can-play-on-but-spectators-not-allowed
   Google Scholar
• Wurz, A., Bean, C., Shaikh, M., Culos-Reed, S. N., & Jung, M. E. (2021). From laboratory to community: Three examples of moving evidence-based physical activity into practice in Canada. Health & Social Care in the Community, 30(5), e1690–e1700. https://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.13596
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar