References
- ACPO (Association of Chief Police Officers). 2008. Operational use of TASER by authorised firearms officers. London: Policy ACPO.
- Alpert, G., and Dunham, R., 2010. Policy and training recommendations related to police use of CEDs: overview of findings from a comprehensive national study. Police quarterly, 13 (3), 235–259.
- Anais, S., 2015. Disarming intervention: a critical history of non-lethality. Vancouver, BC: UBU Press, University of British Columbia.
- Azadani, P., Tseng, Z.H., Ermakov, S., Marcus, G., and Lee, B., 2011. Funding source and author affiliation in TASER research are strongly associated with a conclusion of device safety. American heart journal, 162 (3), 533–537.
- Ba, B., and Grogger, J., 2018. The introduction of Taser and police use of force: evidence from the Chicago police department. NBER Working Paper 24202, National bureau of economic research. Available from: https://www.nber.org/papers/w24202 [Accessed 26 Nov 2018].
- Bozeman, W.P., and Winslow, J.E., 2005. Medical aspects of less lethal weapons. International journal of rescue and disaster medicine, 5 (1), 37–47.
- Bolger, P.C., 2015. Just following orders: a meta-analysis of the correlates of American police officer use of force decisions. American journal of criminal justice, 40, 466–492.
- College of Policing. 2014. Conducted energy devices (Taser). Available from: https://www.app.college.police.uk/app-content/armed-policing/conducted-energy-devices-taser [Accessed 12 Aug 2016].
- Crow, M., and Adrion, B., 2011. Focal concerns and police use of force: examining the factors associated with Taser use. Police quarterly, 14 (4), 366–387.
- De Angelis, J., and Wolf, B., 2013. Tasers and community controversy: investigating training officer perceptions of public concern over conducted energy weapons. The qualitative report, 18 (13), 1–20.
- Dearden, L., 2017. Metropolitan police use force disproportionately against black people in London, new statistics reveal. The Independent. 1st August edition. Available from: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/metropolitan-police-force-statistics-brutality-guns-tasers-black-people-disproportionate-ethnic-a7871811.html [Accessed 2 March 2018].
- Den Heyer, G., 2014. Mayberry revisited: a review of the influence of police paramilitary units on policing. Policing and society, 24 (3), 346–361.
- DOMILL (Defence Scientific Advisory Council Sub-Committee on the Medical Implications of Less-Lethal Weapons). 2012. Statement on the Medical Implications of Use of the Taser X26 and M26 Less-Lethal Systems on Children and Vulnerable Adults http://data.parliament.uk/DepositedPapers/Files/DEP20120729/96605%20Library%20Deposit.pdf [accessed 10 February 2014].
- Durna, T. 2011. Situational determinants of police use of force: who the suspect is vs. what the suspect does. Working Paper Number 34. International Police Executive Forum, Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of the Armed Forces and COGNITA; Geneva. Available from: http://ipes.info/WPS/WPS_No_34.pdf [Accessed 2 March 2018].
- Dymond, A., 2014. The flaw in the Taser debate is the Taser debate: what do we know about Taser in the UK, and how significant are the gaps in our knowledge? Policing: a journal of policy and practice, 8 (2), 165–173.
- Fyfe, N., 1991. The police, space and society: the geography of policing. Progress in human geography, 15 (3), 249–267.
- Gau, J.M., Mosher, C., and Pratt, T., 2010. An inquiry into the impact of suspect race on police use of Tasers. Police quarterly, 13 (1), 27–48.
- Gayle, D., 2015. Black people ‘three times more likely’ to be Tasered. The Guardian [13th October edition]. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2015/oct/13/black-people-three-times-more-likely-to-have-taser-used-against-them [Accessed 2 March 2018].
- Hine, K. A., Porter, L. E, Westera, N. J., Alpert, G. P., and Allen, A. 2018a. Too much or too little? Individual and situational predictors of police force relative to suspect resistance. Policing and society, 28 (5), 587–604
- Hine, K. A., Porter, L. E, Westera, N. J., Alpert, G. P., and Allen, A., 2018b. ‘What were they thinking? Factors influencing police recruits’ decisions about force’. Policing and society. doi:10.1080/10439463.2018.1432612.
- Ho, J., 2009. Can there be Truth about Tasers? Academic emergency medicine, 16 (8), 771–773.
- Home Office. 2016. Official Statistics: Police use of TASER® X26 conducted energy devices statistics, England and Wales: 1 January to 31 December 2016: data tables. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/police-use-of-taser-x26-conducted-energy-devices-statistics-england-and-wales-1-january-to-31-december-2016-data-tables [Accessed 23 August 2018].
- House of Commons Home Affairs Committee. 2016. Police Diversity: First Report of Session 2016–2017; House of Commons; London. Available from: https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201617/cmselect/cmhaff/27/27.pdf [accessed 2 March 2018].
- IPCC (Independent Police Complaints Commission). 2014. IPCC review of taser complaints and incidents 2004 – 2013 IPCC; London. Available from: https://policeconduct.gov.uk/sites/default/files/Documents/researchlearning/use_of_force_review_of_taser_complaints_and_incidents.pdf [Accessed 26 Nov 2018].
- Johnson, R. 2011. Suspect mental disorder and police use of force. Criminal justice and behaviour, 38 (2): 127–145.
- Kaminski, R. J., et al., 2013. A Quantum of force: the consequences of counting routine conducted energy weapon punctures as injuries. Justice quarterly. doi:10.1080/07418825.2013.788729 [ Accessed 14 Aug 2016].
- Kitossa, T., 2016. Making sense of repression in police studies: whither theorizing in the descent toward fascism. Radical criminology, 6, 247–322.
- Kroll, M., et al., 2014. Can TASER electronic control devices cause cardiac arrest? TASER electronic control devices and cardiac arrests: coincidental or causal? Circulation, 129 (1), 93–100.
- Laville, S., 2013. Police in firing line over growing use of Tasers. The Guardian. Available from: http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2013/sep/08/police-use-tasers-doubles-year [Accessed 8 August 2017].
- Lee, J., Zhang, Y., and Hoover, L.T., 2013. Police response to domestic violence: multilevel factors of arrest decision. Policing: an international journal of police strategies & management, 36 (1), 157–174.
- Lee, H., et al., 2010. An examination of police use of force utilizing police training and neighborhood contextual factors: A multilevel analysis. Policing: an international journal of police strategies & management, 33 (4), 681–702.
- London Assembly Police and Crime Committee, 2013. Transcript of Item 6: Governance of Taser Taser Working Group 16 May 2013. Available from: http://www.london.gov.uk/moderngov/documents/s25924/Taser%20Minutes%20-%20Appendix%201%20-%20Transcript.pdf [Accessed 22nd October 2018].
- Lin, Y. and Jones, J., 2010. Electronic control devices and use of force outcomes: incidence and severity of use of force, and frequency of injuries to arrestees and police officers. Policing: an international journal of police strategies & management, 33 (1): 152–178.
- Marenin, O., 1982. Parking tickets and class repression - the concept of policing in critical theories of criminal justice. Contemporary crises, 6 (3), 241–266.
- Morabito, M.S., 2007. Horizons of context: understanding the police decision to arrest people with mental illness. Psychiatric services, 58 (12), 1582–1587.
- McMichael, M. 2017. Pacification and police: A critique of the police militarization thesis. Capital and class, 41 (1): 115–132.
- Neuscheler, J. and Freidlin, A., 2015. Report on Electronic Control Weapons (ECWs) Submitted to the City of Berkeley. Stanford: Stanford Criminal Justice Center.
- O’Brien, A., et al., 2011. Use of Tasers on people with mental illness: a New Zealand database study. International journal of law and psychiatry, 34 (1), 39–43.
- Oriola, T., Neverson, N., and Adeyanju, C., 2012. ‘They should have just taken a gun and shot my son’: taser deployment and the downtrodden in Canada’ social identities. Journal for the study of race, nation and culture, 18 (1), 65–83.
- Petrocelli, M., Piquero, A. R., Smith, M. R., 2003. Conflict theory and racial profiling: An empirical analysis of police traffic stop data. Journal of criminal justice, 31, 1–11.
- Rojek, J., Alpert, G., and Smith, H., 2012. Examining officer and subject Accounts of police Use-of-force incidents. Crime & delinquency, 58 (2), 301–327.
- Root, C., et al., 2013. Brutal Serendipity: Criminological Verstehen and Victimization. Critical criminology, 21 (2), 141–155.
- Shantz, J., 2016. They have always been military: on so-called militarized policing in Canada. Journal of social justice, 6, 1–26.
- Sherman, L.W., 1980. The police and violence. The annals of the American Academy of political and social science, 452, 1–12.
- Sousa, W., Ready, J., and Ault, M., 2010. The impact of TASERs on police use-of- force decisions: findings from a randomized field-training experiment. Journal of experimental criminology, 6 (1), 35–55.
- Sunshine, J., and Tyler, T., 2003. The role of procedural justice and legitimacy in shaping public support for policing. Law and society review, 37 (3), 513–547.
- Terril, W., and Mastrofski, S.D., 2002. Situational and officer-based determinants of police coercion. Justice quarterly, 19 (2), 215–248.
- Terrill, W., and Paoline, E.A., 2017. Police use of less lethal force: does administrative policy matter? Justice quarterly, 34(2), 193–216.
- Terpestra, J.B., 2011. Two theories on the police. The relevance of Max Weber and Emile Durkheim to the study of the police. International journal of law, crime and justice, 39 (1), 1–11.
- UN Committee Against Torture, 2013. Concluding observations on the fifth periodic report of the United Kingdom, adopted by the Committee at its fiftieth session (6–31 May 2013). United Nations, Geneva.
- White, M., and Ready, J., 2007. The TASER as a less lethal force alternative: findings on use and effectiveness in a large metropolitan police agency. Police quarterly, 10 (2), 170–191.
- Whitehead, T., 2012. Concerns over use of Taser guns on vulnerable people. The Telegraph [25th December edition]. Available from: https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/law-and-order/9765676/Concerns-over-use-of-Taser-guns-on-vulnerable-people.html [Accessed 2 March 2018].
- Zipes, D., 2013. Response to letters regarding article, ‘sudden cardiac arrest and death following application of shocks from a taser electronic control device’. Circulation, 127 (1), 261–262.