Algorithmic policing: an exploratory study of the algorithmically mediated construction of individual risk in a UK police force

References

• Amoore, L., and Piotukh, V., 2015. Life beyond big data: governing with little analytics. Economy and society, 44 (3), 341–366. doi:10.1080/03085147.2015.1043793.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babuta, A., 2017. Big data and policing. An assessment of law enforcement requirements, expectations and priorities. London: Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies, Occasional Paper.
   Google Scholar
• Beck, C., and McCue, C., 2009. Predictive policing: what can we learn from Wal-Mart and Amazon about fighting crime in a recession? The police chief, 76 (11), 18–24.
   Google Scholar
• Beer, D., 2016. Metric power. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK.
   Google Scholar
• Benbouzid, B., 2019. To predict and to manage. Predictive policing in the United States. Big data & society, 6 (1), 1–13. doi:10.1177/2053951719861703.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benjamin, R., 2019. Race after technology: abolitionist tools for the New Jim code. Cambridge: Polity Press.
   Google Scholar
• Berk, R., et al., 2009. Forecasting murder within a population of probationers and parolees: a high stakes application of statistical learning. Journal of the royal statistical society: series A (statistics in society), 172 (1), 191–211. doi:10.1111/j.1467-985X.2008.00556.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braga, A.A., et al., 2019. Hot spots policing of small geographic areas effects on crime. Campbell systematic reviews, 15 (3), 1–88. doi:10.1002/cl2.1046.
   Google Scholar
• Braga, A.A., Weisburd, D., and Turchan, B., 2018. Focused deterrence strategies and crime control. Criminology & public policy, 17 (1), 205–250. doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12353.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brantingham, P.J., Valasik, M., and Mohler, G.O., 2018. Does predictive policing lead to biased arrests? Results from a randomized controlled trial. Statistics and public policy, 5 (1), 1–6. doi:10.1080/2330443X.2018.1438940.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brayne, S., 2017. Big data surveillance: The case of policing. American sociological review, 82 (5), 977–1008. doi:10.1177/0003122417725865.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brayne, S., 2021. Predict and surveil: data, discretion, and the future of policing. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Brayne, S., and Christin, A., 2021. Technologies of crime prediction: The reception of algorithms in policing and criminal courts. Social problems, 68 (3), 608–624. doi:10.1093/socpro/spaa004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, K.J., 2020. Punitive reform and the cultural life of punishment: Moving from the ASBO to its successors. Punishment & Society, 22 (1), 90–107. doi:10.1177/1462474519831347.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burney, E., 2008. The ASBO and the shift to punishment. In: P. Squires, ed. Asbo nation: The criminalisation of nuisance. Bristol: Bristol University Press, 135–148.
   Google Scholar
• Callon, M., 1986. The sociology of an actor-network: the case of the electric vehicle. In: M. Callon, J. Law, and A. Rip, eds. Mapping the dynamics of science and technology. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 19–34.
   Google Scholar
• Campbell, E., 1999. Towards a sociological theory of discretion. International journal of the sociology of Law, 27 (1), 79–101. doi:10.1006/ijsl.1999.0082.
   Google Scholar
• Chan, J., and Bennett Moses, L., 2016. Is Big Data challenging criminology? Theoretical criminology, 20 (1), 21–39. doi:10.1177/1362480615586614.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheliotis, L.K., 2006. How iron is the iron cage of new penology? Punishment & Society, 8 (3), 313–340. doi:10.1177/1462474506064700.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christin, A., 2020. The ethnographer and the algorithm: beyond the black box. Theory and Society, 49, 897–918. doi:10.1007/s11186-020-09411-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Couchman, H., 2019. Policing by machine. predictive policing and the threat to Our rights. London: Liberty.
   Google Scholar
• Crawford, A., 2009. Governing through anti-social behaviour: regulatory challenges to criminal justice. British journal of criminology, 49 (6), 810–831. doi:10.1093/bjc/azp041.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis, K.C., 1969. Discretionary justice. A preliminary inquiry. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press.
   Google Scholar
• de Maillard, J., and Savage, S.P., 2012. Comparing performance: the development of police performance management in France and Britain. Policing and society, 22 (4), 363–383. doi:10.1080/10439463.2012.718777.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Densley, J.A., and Pyrooz, D.C., 2020. The matrix in context: taking stock of police gang databases in London and beyond. Youth justice, 20 (1–2), 11–30. doi:10.1177/1473225419883706.
   Google Scholar
• Douglas, M., 1992. Risk and blame: essays in cultural theory. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Duarte, D.E., 2021. The making of crime predictions: sociotechnical assemblages and the controversies of governing future crime. Surveillance & Society, 19 (2), 199–215. doi:10.24908/ss.v19i2.14261.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dymond, A., 2020. Towards a socio-technical understanding of discretion: a case study of Taser and police use of force. Policing and society, 30 (9), 998–1012. doi:10.1080/10439463.2019.1660338.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Egbert, S., and Leese, M., 2020. Criminal futures: predictive policing and everyday police work. S.l: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Ericson, R.V., and Haggerty, K.D., 1997. Policing the risk society. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
   Google Scholar
• Eubanks, V., 2018. Automating inequality. New York, NY: St Martin’s Press.
   Google Scholar
• Feeley, M.M., and Simon, J., 1994. Actuarial justice: The emerging new criminal Law. In: D. Nelken, ed. The futures of criminology. Thousand Oaks: Sage, 173–201.
   Google Scholar
• Ferguson, A.G., 2017. The rise of Big data policing: surveillance, race, and the future of Law enforcement. New York: NYU Press.
   Google Scholar
• Fussey, P., Davies, B., and Innes, M., 2021. ‘Assisted’ facial recognition and the reinvention of suspicion and discretion in digital policing. The British journal of criminology, 61 (2), 325–344. doi:10.1093/bjc/azaa068.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gandy, O.H., 2009. Coming to terms with chance: engaging rational discrimination and cumulative disadvantage. Aldershot: Ashgate.
   Google Scholar
• Garland, D., 2001. The culture of control: crime and social order in contemporary society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hannah-Moffat, K., Maurutto, P., and Turnbull, S., 2009. Negotiated risk: actuarial illusions and discretion in probation. Canadian journal of law and society, 24 (3), 391–409. doi:10.1017/S0829320100010097.
   Google Scholar
• Harcourt, B.E., 2007. Against prediction: profiling, policing, and punishing in an actuarial age. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Home Office. 2021. Police funding for England and Wales 2015 to 2022 [online]. GOV.UK. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/police-funding-for-england-and-wales-2015-to-2022/police-funding-for-england-and-wales-2015-to-2022 [Accessed 10 Feb 2022].
   Google Scholar
• Howard, P., et al. 2009. OGRS 3. Ministry of Justice.
   Google Scholar
• Hutchby, I., 2001. Technologies, texts and affordances. Sociology, 35 (2), 441–456. doi:10.1177/S0038038501000219.
   Google Scholar
• Joh, E.E., 2016. The New surveillance discretion: automated suspicion, Big data, and policing. Harvard Law & policy review, 10, 15–42.
   Google Scholar
• Kaufmann, M., 2018. The co-construction of crime predictions. Dynamics between digital data, software and human beings. In: N.R. Fyfe, H.O.I. Gundhus, and K.V. Rønn, eds. Moral issues in intelligence-led policing. Abingdon, New York: Routledge, 143–160.
   Google Scholar
• Kaufmann, M., 2019. Who connects the dots? : Agents and agency in predictive policing. In: M. Hoijtink and M. Leese, eds. Technology and agency in international relations. London: Routledge, 141–163.
   Google Scholar
• Kaufmann, M., Egbert, S., and Leese, M., 2019. Predictive policing and the politics of patterns. The British journal of criminology, 59 (3), 674–692. doi:10.1093/bjc/azy060.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kemshall, H., 2010. Community protection and multi-agency public protection arrangements. In: M. Nash, and A. Williams, eds. Handbook of public protection. Abingdon, NY: Willan, 199–216.
   Google Scholar
• Kitchin, R., 2017. Thinking critically about and researching algorithms. Information, communication & society, 20 (1), 14–29. doi:10.1080/1369118X.2016.1154087.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lally, N., 2022. It makes almost no difference which algorithm you use”: on the modularity of predictive policing. Urban geography, 43 (9), 1437–1455. doi:10.1080/02723638.2021.1949142.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Law, J., 1991. Power, discretion and strategy. In: J. Law, ed. A sociology of monsters. Essays on power, technology and domination. London: Routledge, 165–191.
   Google Scholar
• Lawrence, P., 2017. The vagrancy Act (1824) and the persistence of Pre-emptive policing in England since 1750. The British journal of criminology, 57 (3), 513–531. doi:10.1093/bjc/azw008.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levy, Y., and Hall, E. 2019. Annex H. A guide to prohibitions updated Nov 19. In: Crown Prosecution Service, ed. Criminal Behaviour Orders. Legal Guidance.
   Google Scholar
• Liggins, A., Ratcliffe, J.H., and Bland, M., 2019. Targeting the most harmful offenders for an English police agency: continuity and change of membership in the “felonious Few”. Cambridge journal of evidence-based policing, 3 (3), 80–96. doi:10.1007/s41887-019-00039-7.
   Google Scholar
• Lipsky, M., 2010. Street-Level bureaucracy: dilemmas of the individual in public services. 30th anniversary. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Lum, K., and Isaac, W., 2016. To predict and serve? Significance, 13 (5), 14–19. doi:10.1111/j.1740-9713.2016.00960.x.
   Google Scholar
• Lyon, D., 2003. Introduction. In: D Lyon, ed. Surveillance as social sorting: privacy, risk and digital discrimination. London: Routledge, 1–9.
   Google Scholar
• Maguire, M., 2018. Policing future crimes. In: M. Maguire, U. Rao, and N. Zurawski, eds. Bodies as evidence: security, knowledge, and power. Durham: Duke University Press, 137–158.
   Google Scholar
• Mann, N., Devendran, P., and Lundrigan, S., 2020. Policing in a time of austerity: understanding the public protection paradox through qualitative interviews with police monitoring officers. Policing: A journal of policy and practice, 14 (3), 630–642. doi:10.1093/police/pay047.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manning, P.K., 2008. The technology of policing: crime mapping, information technology, and the rationality of crime control. New York: New York University Press.
   Google Scholar
• NPCC and APCCS. 2020. National Policing Digital Strategy. Digital, Data and Technology Strategy 2020–2030. National Police Chiefs’ Council and Association of Police and Crime Commissioners.
   Google Scholar
• Oswald, M., et al., 2018. Algorithmic risk assessment policing models: lessons from the Durham HART model and ‘Experimental’ proportionality. Information & communications technology law, 27 (2), 223–250. doi:10.1080/13600834.2018.1458455.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parsons, S., 2007. The criminal justice Act 2003 - Do the Bad character provisions represent a move towards an authoritarian model of criminal justice? In: P. Park, and B. Andoh, eds. Mountbatten yearbook of legal studies. Southampton: Southampton Solent University, 181–197.
   Google Scholar
• Pasquale, F., 2015. The black Box society: The secret algorithms that control money and information. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Pepinsky, H.E., 1984. Better living through police discretion. Law and contemporary problems, 47 (4), 249–267. doi:10.2307/1191692.
   Google Scholar
• Perry, W.L., et al., 2013. Predictive policing: the role of crime forecasting in law enforcement operations. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.
   Google Scholar
• Power, M., 1997. The audit society. Rituals of verification. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Power, M., 2004. The risk management of everything: rethinking the politics of uncertainty. London: Demos.
   Google Scholar
• Pratt, J., 1996. Criminology and history: understanding the present. Current issues in criminal justice, 8 (1), 60–76. doi:10.1080/10345329.1996.12036725.
   Google Scholar
• Raso, F., et al.. 2018. Artificial intelligence & human rights: opportunities & risks. Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society Research Publication. http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:38021439.
   Google Scholar
• Ratcliffe, J.H., and Kikuchi, G., 2019. Harm-focused offender triage and prioritization: a Philadelphia case study. Policing: An international journal, 42 (1), 59–73. doi:10.1108/PIJPSM-08-2018-0118.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ratcliffe, J.H., Taylor, R.B., and Fisher, R., 2020. Conflicts and congruencies between predictive policing and the patrol officer’s craft. Policing and society, 30 (6), 1–17. doi:10.1080/10439463.2019.1577844.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richardson, R., Schultz, J.M., and Crawford, K., 2019. Dirty data, Bad predictions: How civil rights violations impact police data, predictive policing systems, and justice. New York University Law review online, 94, 41.
   Google Scholar
• Robinson, G., 2003. Implementing OASys: Lessons from Research into LSI-R and ACE. Probation journal, 50 (1), 30–40. doi:10.1177/0264550503501001.
   Google Scholar
• Sandhu, A., and Fussey, P., 2021. The ‘uberization of policing’? How police negotiate and operationalise predictive policing technology. Policing and society, 31 (1), 66–81. doi:10.1080/10439463.2020.1803315.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saunders, J., Hunt, P., and Hollywood, J.S., 2016. Predictions put into practice: a quasi-experimental evaluation of Chicago’s predictive policing pilot. Journal of experimental criminology, 12 (3), 347–371. doi:10.1007/s11292-016-9272-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scannell, R.J., 2019. This Is Not minority report. predictive policing and population racism. In: R. Benjamin, ed. Captivating technology. Race, carceral technoscience, and liberatory imagination in everyday life. Durham: Duke University Press, 107–129.
   Google Scholar
• Schlehahn, E., et al. 2015. Benefits and pitfalls of predictive policing. In: 2015 European intelligence and security informatics conference (EISIC). presented at the 2015 European intelligence and security informatics conference (EISIC), 145–148.
   Google Scholar
• Seaver, N., 2017. Algorithms as culture: Some tactics for the ethnography of algorithmic systems. Big data & society, 4 (2), 1–12. doi:10.1177/2053951717738104.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shapiro, A., 2019. Predictive policing for reform? indeterminacy and intervention in Big data policing. Surveillance & Society, 17 (3/4), 456–472. doi:10.24908/ss.v17i3/4.10410.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherman, L.W., 2007. The power few: experimental criminology and the reduction of harm. Journal of experimental criminology, 3 (4), 299–321. doi:10.1007/s11292-007-9044-y.
   Google Scholar
• Sherman, L., Neyroud, P.W., and Neyroud, E., 2016. The Cambridge crime harm index: measuring total harm from crime based on sentencing guidelines. Policing, 10 (3), 171–183. doi:10.1093/police/paw003.
   Google Scholar
• Squires, P., 2006. New Labour and the politics of antisocial behaviour. Critical social policy, 26 (1), 144–168. doi:10.1177/0261018306059769.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Terpstra, J., Fyfe, N.R., and Salet, R., 2019. The Abstract Police: A conceptual exploration of unintended changes of police organisations. The police journal: theory, practice and principles, 92 (4), 339–359. doi:10.1177/0032258X18817999.
   Google Scholar
• Tulumello, S., 2018. Neoliberalisation of security, austerity and the ‘End of public policy’: governing crime in Memphis (TN, USA) through predictive policing, community, grants and police ‘mission creep’. Acme An international journal for critical geographies, 17 (1), 171–200.
   Google Scholar
• Waardenburg, L., Huysman, M., and Sergeeva, A.V., 2022. In the land of the blind, the One-eyed Man Is king: knowledge brokerage in the Age of learning algorithms. Organization science, 33 (1), 59–82. doi:10.1287/orsc.2021.1544.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walley, P., and Adams, M., 2019. An evaluation of demand management practices in UK police forces. Milton Keynes: Centre for Policing Research and Learning, The Open University Business School.
   Google Scholar
• Werth, R., 2019. Risk and punishment: The recent history and uncertain future of actuarial, algorithmic, and “evidence-based” penal techniques. Sociology compass, 13 (2), e12659. doi:10.1111/soc4.12659.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiliams, A., and Nash, M., 2014. The realities of legislating against and protecting the public from risky groups. In: K. McCartan, ed. Responding to sexual offending. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 1–19.
   Google Scholar
• Willis, J.J., 2013. Improving police: what’s craft got to do with it? Ideas in American policing, 16, 1–13.
   Google Scholar
• Willis, J.J., and Mastrofski, S.D., 2012. Compstat and the new penology: A paradigm shift in policing? British journal of criminology, 52 (1), 73–92. doi:10.1093/bjc/azr063.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson, D., 2019. Predictive policing management: A brief history of patrol automation. New formations, 98 (1), 139–155. doi:10.3898/NEWF:98.09.2019.
   Google Scholar
• Wolfgang, M.E., Figlio, R.M., and Sellin, T., 1972. Delinquency in a birth cohort. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar