Police station design and intrusive police encounters: untangling variations in emotions and behaviourally-relevant perceptions across racial groups

References

• Alberton, A.M. and Gorey, K.M., 2018. Contact is a stronger predictor of attitudes toward police than race: a state-of-the-art review. Policing: An international journal, 41 (1), 2–23.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AmeriSpeak, 2022. Technical overview of the AmeriSpeak panel NORC’s probability-based household panel. Chicago, Illinois: NORC. University of Chicago.
   Google Scholar
• Bartsch, R.A. and Cheurprakobkit, S., 2004. The effects of amount of contact, contact expectation, and contact experience with police on attitudes toward police. Journal of police and criminal psychology, 19, 58–70.
   Google Scholar
• Bennefield, Z., 2018. School and family correlates of positive affect in a nationally representative sample of US adolescents. Child and adolescent social work journal, 35, 541–548.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bennett, B.R., 1995. Incorporating diversity: police response to multicultural changes in their communities. Fbi Law enforcement bulletin, 64, 1.
   Google Scholar
• Blaskovits, B., et al., 2022. The thin blue line between cop and soldier: examining public perceptions of the militarized appearance of police. Police practice and research, 23 (2), 212–235.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blount-Hill, K. L, 2020. Advancing a social identity model of system attitudes. International Annals of Criminology, 57 (1-2), 114–137.
   Google Scholar
• Blount-Hill, K., 2021. Exploring a social identity theory of shared narrative: insights from resident stories of police contact in Newark, New Jersey, and Cleveland, Ohio. Criminal justice and behavior, 48 (6), 810–827.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blount-Hill, K., 2023. Towards a dignified design: O-T-I, S-L-S, and experience in carceral space. In: D. Moran, Y. Jewkes, K. Blount-Hill, and V. J. St. John, eds. The Palgrave handbook of prison design. Palgrave studies in prisons and penology. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave McMillan, 313–337.
   Google Scholar
• Blount-Hill, K. L. and Gau, J. M, 2022. Future Research on Legitimacy and Its Measures. In: Understanding Legitimacy in Criminal Justice: Conceptual and Measurement Challenges. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 93–108.
   Google Scholar
• Blount-Hill, K., St. John, V.J., and Ryan, E., 2017. Psychology of space: enhancing legitimacy through open, transparent, and inclusive facilities for police and the public. Alexandria, Virginia: Police chief magazine.
   Google Scholar
• Bolger, M.A., Lytle, D.J., and Bolger, P.C., 2021. What matters in citizen satisfaction with police: a meta-analysis. Journal of criminal justice, 72, 101760.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowleg, L., et al., 2020. Negative police encounters and police avoidance as pathways to depressive symptoms among US Black men, 2015–2016. American journal of public health, 110 (S1), S160–S166.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bradford, B., Jackson, J., and Stanko, E.A., 2009. Contact and confidence: revisiting the impact of public encounters with the police. Policing and society, 19 (1), 20–46.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braga, A.A., Brunson, R.K., and Drakulich, K.M., 2019. Race, place, and effective policing. Annual review of sociology, 45 (1), 535–555.
   Google Scholar
• Brewer, R. and Grabosky, P., 2014. The unraveling of public security in the United States: the dark side of police-community co-production. American journal of criminal justice, 39 (1), 139–154.
   Google Scholar
• Brown, B. and Reed Benedict, W., 2002. Perceptions of the police. Policing: an international journal of police strategies & management, 25 (3), 543–580.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brunson, R.K., 2015. Focused deterrence and improved police-community relations. Criminology & public policy, 14, 507.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buchanan, R., 2001. Human dignity and human rights: thoughts on the principles of human-centered design. Design issues, 17 (3), 35–39.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Callanan, V.J. and Rosenberger, J.S., 2011. Media and public perceptions of the police: examining the impact of race and personal experience. Policing and society, 21 (2), 167–189.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheurprakobkit, S., 2000. Police-citizen contact and police performance attitudinal differences between Hispanics and non-Hispanics. Journal of criminal justice, 28 (4), 325–336.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clinton, A. and Devlin, A.S., 2011. “Is this really a police station?”: Police department exteriors and judgments of authority, professionalism, and approachability. Journal of environmental psychology, 31 (4), 393–406.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cockerham, W.C. and Forslund, M.A., 1975. Attitudes toward the police among white and Native American youth. American Indian Law review, 3 (2), 419–428.
   Google Scholar
• Craig, M.O. and Blount-Hill, K., eds., forthcoming, 2023. Justice and legitimacy in policing: transforming the institution. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Dean, D., 1980. Citizen ratings of the police: the difference contact makes. Law & policy, 2 (4), 445–471.
   Google Scholar
• Diphoorn, T., 2019. Arms for mobility’: policing partnerships and material exchanges in Nairobi, Kenya. Policing and society, 30 (2), 136–152.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engstrom, K.V. and Van Ginneken, E.F., 2022. Ethical prison architecture: a systematic literature review of prison design features related to wellbeing. Space and culture, 25 (3), 12063312221104211.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferdik, F., Frogge, G., and Cooney, M., 2022. Exploring further determinants of citizen satisfaction with the police: the role of strain. Journal of criminal justice, 81, 101931.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fine, A.D., Padilla, K.E., and Tapp, J., 2021. Can working collaboratively with police on community service promote positive youth development? Police practice and research, 22 (7), 1739–1759.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fitzgerald, J. and Fitzgerald, J., 2013. Statistics for criminal justice and criminology in practice and research: an introduction. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Frank, J., et al., 1996. Citizen involvement in the coproduction of police outputs. Journal of crime and justice, 19 (2), 1–30.
   Google Scholar
• Gill, C., et al., 2014. Community-oriented policing to reduce crime, disorder and fear and increase satisfaction and legitimacy among citizens: a systematic review. Journal of experimental criminology, 10 (4), 399–428.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldsmith, A., Halsey, M., and Bright, D., 2022. Taking crime guns seriously: a socio-material perspective. Criminology & criminal justice, 22 (3), 462–479.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gorlin, D.C., 2009. Evaluating punishment in purgatory: the need to separate pretrial detainees’ conditions-of-confinement claims from inadequate Eighth Amendment analysis. Michigan Law review, 108 (3), 417.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gramlich, J. 2020. What the data says (and doesn’t say) about crime in the United States. Retrieved from https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/11/20/facts-about-crime-in-the-u-s/.
   Google Scholar
• Gross, S.E., 1974. Denial of the right to a speedy trial: strict remedy for an uncertain doctrine. The justice system journal, 1, 73–83.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Headley, A.M., Blount-Hill, K., and St. John, V.J., 2021. The psychology of justice buildings: a survey experiment on police architecture, public sentiment, and race. Journal of criminal justice, 73, 101747.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Headley, A.M. and Wright, J.E., 2020. Is representation enough? racial disparities in levels of force and arrests by police. Public administration review, 80 (6), 1051–1062.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hinds, L., 2009. Public satisfaction with police: the influence of general attitudes and police-citizen encounters. International journal of police science & management, 11 (1), 54–66.
   Google Scholar
• Hinds, L. and Murphy, K., 2007. Public satisfaction with police: using procedural justice to improve police legitimacy. Australian & New Zealand journal of criminology, 40 (1), 27–42.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IACP. 2019. Police facilities planning guidelines. Alexandria, VA. International Association for Chiefs of Police.
   Google Scholar
• Israel, J.H., 1963. Gideon v. Wainwright: the “Art” of overruling. The supreme court review, 1963, 211–272.
   Google Scholar
• Jesilow, P. and Namazzi, N., 1995. Public attitudes toward the police. American journal of police, 14 (2), 67–88.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, D., et al., 2017. Race and perceptions of police: experimental results on the impact of procedural (In)justice. Justice quarterly, 34 (7), 1184–1212.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, M.J., 2021. In U.S. black confidence recovers from 2020 Low. social and policy issues. GALLUP.
   Google Scholar
• Joseph, N. and Alex, N., 1972. The uniform: a sociological perspective. American journal of sociology, 77 (4), 719–730.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kingsley, J.D., 1944. Representative bureaucracy. Representative bureaucracy: classic readings and continuing controversies, 12–18.
   Google Scholar
• Klein, L. and Van Ness, S.R., 2002. Justice for whom?: assessing humanist criminology as a catalyst for change in the criminal justice apparatus. The American sociologist, 33 (4), 98–110.
   Google Scholar
• Kurti, Z. and Shanahan, J., 2018. Rebranding mass incarceration: the Lippman commission and carceral devolution in New York city. Social justice, 45, 25–49.
   Google Scholar
• Linnemann, T. and Turner, J., 2022. Three-dimensional policeman: security, sovereignty and volumetric police power. Theoretical criminology, 26 (1), 23–39.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lombardo, R.M. and Donner, C.M., 2018. Can community policing increase residents’ informal social control? Testing the impact of the Chicago alternative policing strategy. Police practice and research, 19 (5), 427–442.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lum, C., Koper, C.S., and Wu, X., 2022. Can we really defund the police? A nine-agency study of police response to calls for service. Police quarterly, 25 (3), 255–280.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marteau, T.M. and Bekker, H., 1992. The development of a six-item short-form of the state scale of the Spielberger State—Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). British journal of clinical psychology, 31, 301–306.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayeux, S., 2013. Ineffective assistance of counsel before powell v. Alabama: lessons from history for the future of the right to counsel. Iowa Law review., 99, 2161.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McClanahan, B. and South, N., 2020. ‘All knowledge begins with the Senses’1: towards a sensory criminology. The British journal of criminology, 60 (1), 3–23.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merriam-Webster, 2022. Humane. Springfield, Massachusetts: Merriam-Webster.
   Google Scholar
• Miller, J. and Davis, R.C., 2008. Unpacking public attitudes to the police: contrasting perceptions of misconduct with traditional measures of satisfaction. International journal of police science and management, 10 (1), 9–22.
   Google Scholar
• Millie, A., 2012. Police stations, architecture and public reassurance. British journal of criminology, 52 (6), 1092–1112.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nadal, K.L., et al., 2017. Perceptions of police, racial profiling, and psychological outcomes: a mixed methodological study. Journal of social issues, 73 (4), 808–830.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olsson-Collentine, A., Van Assen, M.A., and Hartgerink, C.H., 2019. The prevalence of marginally significant results in psychology over time. Psychological science, 30 (4), 576–586.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ortiz, A. 2020. Confidence in police is at record Low, Gallup Survey Finds. New York Times.
   Google Scholar
• Posner, E.A., 1998. Symbols, signals, and social norms in politics and the law. The journal of legal studies, 27 (S2), 765–797.
   Google Scholar
• President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing, 2015. Final report of the president’s task force on 21st century policing. Washington, D.C: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services.
   Google Scholar
• Pritschet, L., Powell, D., and Horne, Z., 2016. Marginally significant effects as evidence for hypotheses. Psychological science, 27 (7), 1036–1042.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reisig, M.D., Mays, R.D., and Telep, C.W., 2018. The effects of procedural injustice during police-citizen encounters: a factorial vignette study. Journal of experimental criminology, 14, 49–58.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Renauer, B.C., Duffee, D.E., and Scott, J.D., 2003. Measuring police-community co-production: trade-offs in two observational approaches. Policing: an international journal of police strategies & management, 26 (1), 9–28.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rich, J.A. and Grey, C.M., 2005. Pathways to recurrent trauma among young Black men: traumatic stress, substance use, and the “code of the street”. American journal of public health, 95 (5), 816–824.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenbaum, D.P., et al., 2005. Attitudes toward the police: the effects of direct and vicarious experience. Police quarterly, 8 (3), 343–365.
   Google Scholar
• Rosenbaum, D.P. and Lurigio, A.J., 1994. An inside look at community policing reform: definitions, organizational changes, and evaluation findings. Crime & delinquency, 40 (3), 299–314.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenthal, L., 2010. Pragmatism, originalism, race, and the case against Terry v. Ohio. Texas. tech Law. review, 43, 299.
   Google Scholar
• Roussell, A. and Gascón, L., 2014. Defining “Policeability”. Social problems, 61 (2), 237–258.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rusinko, W.T., Johnson, K.W., and Hornung, C.A., 1978. The importance of police contact in the formulation of youths’ attitudes toward police. Journal of criminal justice, 6 (1), 53–67.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scaglion, R. and Condon, R.G., 1980. Determinants of attitudes toward city police. Criminology, 17 (4), 485–494.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schuck, A.M., 2019. Community policing, coproduction, and social control: restoring police legitimacy. In: Cara Rabe-Hemp and Nancy Lind, eds. Political authority, social control and public policy. Emerald Publishing Limited, 63–77.
   Google Scholar
• Schuck, A.M. and Rosenbaum, D.P., 2005. Global and neighborhood attitudes toward the police: differentiation by race, ethnicity, and type of contact. Journal of quantitative criminology, 21 (4), 391–418.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schuck, A.M., Rosenbaum, D.P., and Hawkins, D.F., 2008. The influence of race/ethnicity, social class, and neighborhood context on residents’ attitudes toward the police. Police quarterly, 11 (4), 496–519.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott, J.D., 2002. Assessing the relationship between police-community coproduction and neighborhood-level social capital. Journal of contemporary criminal justice, 18 (2), 147–166.
   Google Scholar
• Simpson, R., 2017. The Police Officer Perception Project (POPP): an experimental evaluation of factors that impact perceptions of the police. Journal of experimental criminology, 13 (3), 393–415.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simpson, R., 2019. Police vehicles as symbols of legitimacy. Journal of experimental criminology, 15 (1), 87–101.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simpson, R., 2021. When police smile: a two sample test of the effects of facial expressions on perceptions of police. Journal of police and criminal psychology, 36 (2), 170–182.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skinns, L., Sorsby, A., and Rice, L., 2020. “Treat them as a human being”: dignity in police detention and its implications for ‘good’ police custody. The British journal of criminology, 60 (6), 1667–1688.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sklansky, D.A., 2000. The Fourth Amendment and common law. Columbia Law review, 100, 1739.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skogan, W.G., 2000. Public involvement: community policing in Chicago. District of Columbia: US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice.
   Google Scholar
• Skogan, W.G., 2006. Asymmetry in the impact of encounters with police. Policing and society, 16 (2), 99–126.
   Google Scholar
• Stanley, K., 2007. Design of randomized controlled trials. Circulation, 115 (9), 1164–1169.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart, P., 1983. The road to Mapp v. Ohio and beyond: the origins, development and future of the exclusionary rule in search-and-seizure cases. Columbia Law review, 83, 1365.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• St. John, V.J., et al., 2019. Architecture and correctional services: a facilities approach to treatment. The prison journal, 99 (6), 748–770.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• St. John, V.J., 2020. Placial justice: restoring rehabilitation and correctional legitimacy through architectural design. Sage open, 10 (2), 2158244020919503.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• St. John, V.J., et al., 2022. Safe by design: an exploration of jail-based injury across New York City. Journal of correctional health care, 28 (3), 179–189.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• St. John, V.J., and Blount-Hill, K., 2019. Place, space, race, and life during and after incarceration: dismantling mass incarceration through spatial and placial justice. Harvard journal of African American public policy, 2019-2020, 46–54.
   Google Scholar
• Struve, C.T., 2012. The conditions of pretrial detention. University of b AU9 Pennsylvania Law review, 161, 1009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tibe, H.L., 1975. Structural Due process. Harvard civil rights-civil liberties Law review, 10, 269.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toews, B., 2018. ‘It’s a dead place’: a qualitative exploration of violence survivors’ perceptions of justice architecture. Contemporary justice review, 21 (2), 208–222.
   Google Scholar
• van der Meulen, E., Chu, S.K.H., and Butler-McPhee, J., 2021. ‘That's why people don't call 911”: ending routine police attendance at drug overdoses. International journal of drug policy, 88, 103039.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vogel, D., and Homberg, F., 2021. P-hacking, p-curves, and the PSM–performance relationship: is there evidential value?. Public administration review, 81 (2), 191–204.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weitzer, R. and Tuch, S.A., 2005. Racially biased policing: determinants of citizen perceptions. Social forces, 83 (3), 1009–1030.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weitzer, R., Tuch, S.A., and Skogan, W.G., 2008. Police-community relations in a majority-Black city. Journal of research in crime and delinquency, 45 (4), 398–428.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wells, W., 2007. Type of contact and evaluations of police officers: the effects of procedural justice across three types of police-citizen contacts. Journal of criminal justice, 35 (6), 612–621.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winn, P., 2008. Katz and the origins of the reasonable expectation of privacy test. Mcgeorge Law. review, 40, 1.
   Google Scholar
• Wright, J.E. and Headley, A.M., 2020. Police use of force interactions: is race relevant or gender germane? The American review of public administration, 50 (8), 851–864.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu, Y., 2014. Race/ethnicity and perceptions of the police: a comparison of white, Black, Asian and Hispanic Americans. Policing and society, 24 (2), 135–157.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar