Publication Cover
Policing and Society
An International Journal of Research and Policy
Volume 34, 2024 - Issue 3
3,036
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

From criminalisation to harm reduction? The forms and functions of police drug diversion in England and Wales

Pages 105-123 | Received 30 May 2023, Accepted 26 Sep 2023, Published online: 11 Oct 2023

References

  • ACMD, 2019. Custody-community transitions. London: Home Office.
  • ACPO, 2003. Cannabis enforcement guidance. London: ACPO.
  • ACPO, 2009. Guidance on cannabis possession for personal use. London: ACPO.
  • ACPO, 2014. National policing guidance on khat possession for personal use intervention framework. London: ACPO.
  • Adda, J., McConnell, B., and Rasul, I., 2014. Crime and the depenalization of cannabis possession: evidence from a policing experiment. Journal of political economy, 122 (5), 1130–1202.
  • Ames, A., et al., 2018. Adult out of court disposal pilot evaluation – final report. London: Ministry of Justice.
  • Anderson, E., et al., 2022. Experiences with the Philadelphia police assisted diversion program: a qualitative study. International journal of drug policy, 100, 103521.
  • Bacon, M., 2022. Desistance from criminalisation: police culture and new directions in drugs policing. Policing and society, 32 (4), 522–539.
  • Bacon, M., Loftus, B., and Rowe, M., 2020. Ethnography and the evocative world of policing (part I). Policing and society, 30 (1), 1–10.
  • Bacon, M., and Seddon, T., 2020. Controlling drug users: forms of power and behavioural regulation in drug treatment services. British journal of criminology, 60 (2), 403–421.
  • Bacon, M., and Spicer, J., 2023. Harm reduction policing: conceptualisation and implementation. In: M. Bacon, and J. Spicer, eds. Drug law enforcement, policing and harm reduction: ending the stalemate. London: Routledge, 13–38.
  • Bartkowiak-Théron, I., et al., eds. 2022. Law enforcement and public health: partners for community safety and wellbeing. New York: Springer.
  • Beckett, K., 2016. The uses and abuses of police discretion: toward harm reduction policing. Harvard law and policy review, 10, 77–100.
  • Beckett, K., Bell, M., and Stuart, F., 2023. Beyond harm reduction policing. In: M. Bacon, and J. Spicer, eds. Drug law enforcement, policing and harm reduction: ending the stalemate. London: Routledge, 215–233.
  • Black, C., 2021. Review of drugs: phase two report. London: Home Office.
  • Blais, E., et al., 2022. Diverting people who use drugs from the criminal justice system: a systematic review of police-based diversion measures. International journal of drug policy, 105, 103697.
  • Caulkins, J., and Reuter, P., 2009. Towards a harm-reduction approach to enforcement. Safer communities, 8 (1), 9–23.
  • Charlier, J., and Reichert, J., 2020. Introduction: deflection – police-led responses to behavioral health challenges. Journal for advancing justice, 3, 1–13.
  • Christmas, H., and Srivastava, J., 2019. Public health approaches in policing. London: College of Policing and Public Health England.
  • Cohen, S., 1979. The punitive city: notes on the dispersal of social control. Contemporary crises, 3 (4), 339–363.
  • College of Policing, 2021. Policing and health collaboration: landscape review. London: College of Policing.
  • Commission on Race and Ethnic Disparities, 2021. The report of the commission on race and ethnic disparities. London: HM Government.
  • Connor, M., et al., 2020. Drug testing on arrest – who benefits? Health and justice, 8 (3).
  • Cram, F., 2020. The ‘carrot’ and ‘stick’ of integrated offender management: implications for police culture. Policing and society, 30 (4), 378–395.
  • Cram, F., 2023. Integrated offender management and the policing of prolific offenders. London: Routledge.
  • Crawford, A., 2013. Sticks and carrots … and sermons. In: A. Crawford, and A. Hucklesby, eds. Legitimacy and compliance in criminal justice. London: Routledge, 181–214.
  • Crew, B., 2012. The prisoner society: power, adaptation and social life in an English prison. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • De Koning, A., 2017. ‘Handled with care’: diffuse policing and the production of inequality in Amsterdam. Ethnography, 18 (4), 535–555.
  • de Viggiani, N., 2022. Drug education as diversion: a mixed methods evaluation of the Avon & Somerset Drug Education Programme. Bristol: UWE.
  • Dorn, N., 1994. Three faces of police referral: welfare, justice and business perspectives on multi-agency work with drug arrestees. Policing and society, 4 (1), 13–34.
  • Edmunds, M., et al., 1998. Arrest referral: emerging lessons from research. London: Home Office.
  • Fassin, D., 2017. Introduction: ethnographying the police. In: D. Fassin, ed. Writing the world of policing: the difference ethnography makes. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1–20.
  • Fielding, N., 1984. Probation practice: client support under social control. Aldershot: Gower.
  • Fleming, J., and Charman, S., eds. 2023. Handbook of police ethnography. London: Routledge.
  • Gibson, C., 2021. Conditional cautioning in England & Wales: a socio-legal analysis of policy and practice. PhD. University of Nottingham.
  • Goetz, B., and Mitchell, R., 2006. Pre-arrest/booking drug control strategies: diversion to treatment, harm reduction and police involvement. Contemporary drug problems, 33 (3), 473–520.
  • Grace, S., 2014. ‘Swift, simple, effective justice?’ identifying the aims of penalty notices for disorder and whether these have been realised in practice. The howard journal of criminal justice, 53 (1), 69–82.
  • Harkin, D., 2015. The police and punishment: understanding the pains of policing. Theoretical criminology, 19 (1), 43–58.
  • Harm Reduction International. 2023. What is harm reduction? Available from: https://hri.global/what-is-harm-reduction/.
  • Henley, A., 2022. Criminalisation, criminal records and rehabilitation: from supervision to citizenship? Probation journal, 69 (3), 273–277.
  • HM Government, 1995. Tacking drugs together. London: HMSO.
  • HM Government, 1998. Tackling drugs to build a better Britain. London: HMSO.
  • HM Government, 2017. Drug strategy 2017. London: HM Government.
  • HM Government, 2021. From harm to hope: a 10-year drugs plan to cut crime and save lives. London: HM Government.
  • HM Government and College of Policing, 2014. Out of court disposals: consultation response. London: HM Government and College of Policing.
  • Home Affairs Committee, 2023. Drugs. London: House of Commons.
  • Home Office, 2021. Crime outcomes in England and Wales: technical annex. London: Home Office.
  • Home Office, 2022. Swift, certain, tough: new consequences for drug possession. London: Home Office.
  • Hughes, C., 2009. Capitalising upon political opportunities to reform drug policy: a case study into the development of the Australian “tough on drugs-illicit drug diversion initiative”. International journal of drug policy, 20 (5), 431–437.
  • Innes, M., 2014. Signal crimes: social reactions to crime, disorder and control. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Jones, M., and Twomey, B., 2023. Leading local change: police and crime commissioners and drug policy. In: M. Bacon, and J. Spicer, eds. Drug law enforcement, policing and harm reduction: ending the stalemate. London: Routledge, 275–297.
  • Kammersgaard, T., 2019. Harm reduction policing: from drug law enforcement to protection. Contemporary drug problems, 46 (4), 345–362.
  • Kammersgaard, T., et al., 2023. ‘Another tool in the toolbox’: an investigation of a drug diversion programme in a Danish police precinct. In: M. Bacon, and J. Spicer, eds. Drug law enforcement, policing and harm reduction: ending the stalemate. London: Routledge, 197–214.
  • Kelly, L., and Armitage, V., 2015. Diverse diversions: youth justice reform, localized practices, and a ‘new interventionist diversion’? Youth justice, 15 (2), 117–133.
  • Kemshall, H., and Maguire, M., 2001. Public protection, partnership and risk penality. Punishment and society, 3 (2), 237–264.
  • Kimber, J., et al., 2019. Rising opioid-related deaths in England and Scotland must be recognised as a public health crisis. The lancet psychiatry, 6 (8), 639–640.
  • Kirk, D., and Wakefield, S., 2018. Collateral consequences of punishment: a critical review and path forward. Annual review of criminology, 1, 171–194.
  • Kruithof, K., et al., 2016. Study on alternatives to coercive sanctions as response to drug law offences and drug-related crimes. Brussels: European Commission.
  • Lammy, D., 2017. The Lammy review: an independent review into the treatment of, and outcomes for, Black, Asian and minority ethnic individuals in the criminal justice system. London: Cabinet Office.
  • Layder, D., 1998. Sociological practice: linking theory and social research. London: Sage.
  • Loader, I., 1997. Policing and the social: questions of symbolic power. The British journal of sociology, 48 (1), 1–18.
  • Lynch-Huggins, S., et al., 2021. Evaluation of divert. London: College of Policing.
  • Malterud, K., Siersma, V., and Guassora, A., 2016. Sample size in qualitative interview studies: guided by information power. Qualitative health research, 26 (13), 1753–1760.
  • Marder, I., 2020. Institutionalising restorative justice in the police: key findings from a study of two English police forces. Contemporary justice review, 23 (4), 500–526.
  • May, T., et al., 2002. Times they are a-changing: policing of cannabis. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.
  • McCarthy, D., 2014. Soft’ policing: the collaborative control of anti-social behaviour. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Ministry of Justice, 2020. A smarter approach to sentencing. London: HMSO.
  • Monaghan, G., and Bewley-Taylor, D., 2013. Practical implications for policing alternatives to arrest and prosecution for minor cannabis offences. London: International Drug Policy Consortium.
  • Muir, R., et al., 2022. A new mode of protection: redesigning policing and public safety for the 21st century. London: Police Foundation.
  • Murji, K., 1998. Policing drugs. Aldershot: Ashgate.
  • Nash, M., 1999. Enter the ‘polibation officer’. International journal of police science and management, 1 (4), 360–369.
  • Newburn, T., and Elliott, J., 1998. Police anti-drugs strategies: tackling drugs together three years on. London: Home Office.
  • Neyroud, P., and Slothower, M., 2015. Wielding the sword of Damocles: the challenges and opportunities in reforming police out-of-court disposals in England and Wales. In: M. Wasik, and S. Santatzoglou, eds. The management of change in criminal justice: who knows best? Basingstoke: Palgrave, 275–293.
  • NPCC, 2017. Charging and out of court disposals: a national strategy. London: NPCC.
  • NPCC, 2019. Outcome 22 – NPCC briefing note. London: NPCC.
  • Oerton, J., et al., 2003. Arrest referral in London police stations: characteristics of the first year. A key point of intervention for drug users? Drugs: education, prevention and policy, 10, 73–85.
  • Perrone, D., Malm, A., and Magaña, E., 2022. Harm reduction policing: an evaluation of law enforcement assisted diversion (LEAD) in San Francisco. Police quarterly, 25 (1), 7–32.
  • Price, T., Parkes, T., and Malloch, M., 2021. ‘Discursive struggles’ between criminal justice sanctions and health interventions for people who use drugs: a qualitative exploration of diversion policy and practice in Scotland. Drugs: education, prevention and policy, 28 (2), 118–126.
  • Reiss, A., 1995. Diversion and social control: alternative measures of crime control. In: G. Albrecht, and W. Ludwig-Mayerhofer, eds. Diversion and informal social control. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 35–46.
  • Seddon, T., Williams, L., and Ralphs, R., 2012. Tough choices: risks, security, and the criminalization of drug policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Shaw, S., et al., 2022. Making the criminal justice system work better: how to improve out-of-court disposals and diversion schemes. London: Crest.
  • Sherman, L., and Neyroud, P., 2012. Offender-desistance policing and the sword of Damocles. London: Civitas.
  • Skinns, L., and Wooff, A., 2021. Pain in police detention: a critical point in the ‘penal painscape’? Policing and society, 31 (3), 245–262.
  • Sondhi, A., O’Shea, J., and Williams, T., 2002. Arrest referral: emerging findings from the national monitoring and evaluation programme. London: Home Office.
  • Spyt, W., Barnham, L., and Kew, J., 2019. Diversion: going soft on drugs? Thames valley police journal, 4, 44–58.
  • Steer, D., 1970. Police cautions – a study in the exercise of police discretion. Oxford: Blackwells.
  • Stevens, A., 2013. Applying harm reduction principles to the policing of retail drug markets. London: International Drug Policy Consortium.
  • Stevens, A., et al., 2022. Depenalization, diversion and decriminalization: a realist review and programme theory of alternatives to criminalization for simple drug possession. European journal of criminology, 19 (1), 29–54.
  • Tierney, J., 2000. Research note: testing times: policing, arrest referral and cannabis use. Policing and society, 10 (4), 367–382.
  • Warburton, F., 2022. Evaluation of the call in project. Bristol: Golden Key.
  • Weir, K., et al., 2022. Checkpoint: an innovative programme to navigate people away from the cycle of reoffending – a randomised control trial evaluation. The police journal: theory, practice and principles, 95 (3), 562–589.