The Rise of Chatbots in Political Campaigns: The Effects of Conversational Agents on Voting Intention

References

• Aggarwal, P. (2004). The effects of brand relationship norms on consumer attitudes and behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 31(1), 87–101. https://doi.org/10.1086/383426
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Araujo, T. (2018). Living up to the chatbot hype: The influence of anthropomorphic design cues and communicative agency framing on conversational agent and company perceptions. Computers in Human Behavior, 85, 183–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.03.051
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bellur, S., & Sundar, S. S. (2017). Talking health with a machine: How does message interactivity affect attitudes and cognitions? Human Communication Research, 43(1), 25–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/hcre.12094
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernhard, R., & Freeder, S. (2020). The more you know: Voter heuristics and the information search. Political Behavior, 42(2), 603–623. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-018-9512-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bessi, A., & Ferrara, E. (2016). Social bots distort the 2016 US Presidential election online discussion. First Monday, 21(11) https://doi.org/10.5210/fm.v21i11.7090
   Google Scholar
• Bickmore, T. W., & Picard, R. W. (2005). Establishing and maintaining long-term human-computer relationships. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction, 12(2), 293–327. https://doi.org/10.1145/1067860.1067867
   Google Scholar
• Bracciale, R., & Martella, A. (2017). Define the populist political communication style: The case of Italian political leaders on Twitter. Information, Communication & Society, 20(9), 1310–1329. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2017.1328522
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byrne, D. (1997). An overview (and underview) of research and theory within the attraction paradigm. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 14(3), 417–431. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407597143008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaves, A. P., Doerry, E., Egbert, J., & Gerosa, M. (2019, September). It's how you say it: Identifying appropriate register for chatbot language design [Paper presentation]. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Human-Agent Interaction, Kyoto, Japan.
   Google Scholar
• Chaves, A. P., & Gerosa, M. A. (2021). How should my chatbot interact? A survey on social characteristics in human–chatbot interaction design. International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction, 37(8), 729–758. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2020.1841438
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dhapola, S. (2021). How a chatbot helped Joe Biden become US President. https://indianexpress.com/article/technology/tech-news-technology/amplify-ai-chatbot-how-it-helped-joe-biden-become-us-president-7157578/ Accessed June 26, 2021).
   Google Scholar
• Epley, N., Waytz, A., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2007). On seeing human: A three-factor theory of anthropomorphism. Psychological Review, 114(4), 864–886.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fridin, M., & Belokopytov, M. (2014). Acceptance of socially assistive humanoid robot by preschool and elementary school teachers. Computers in Human Behavior, 33, 23–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.12.016
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fryer, L. K., Ainley, M., Thompson, A., Gibson, A., & Sherlock, Z. (2017). Stimulating and sustaining interest in a language course: An experimental comparison of chatbot and human task partners. Computers in Human Behavior, 75, 461–468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.05.045
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gil de Zúñiga, H., Jung, N., & Valenzuela, S. (2012). Social media use for news and individuals' social capital, civic engagement and political participation. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 17(3), 319–336. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2012.01574.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Go, E., & Sundar, S. S. (2019). Humanizing chatbots: The effects of visual, identity and conversational cues on humanness perceptions. Computers in Human Behavior, 97, 304–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.01.020
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griol, D., Carbó, J., & Molina, J. M. (2013). An automatic dialog simulation technique to develop and evaluate interactive conversational agents. Applied Artificial Intelligence, 27(9), 759–780. https://doi.org/10.1080/08839514.2013.835230
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guthrie, S. (1993). Faces in the clouds: A new theory of religion. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hagen, L., Neely, S., Keller, T. E., Scharf, R., & Vasquez, F. E. (2022). Rise of the machines? Examining the influence of social bots on a political discussion network. Social Science Computer Review, 40(2), 264–287. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439320908190
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Han, N. R., Baek, T. H., Yoon, S., & Kim, Y. (2019). Is that coffee mug smiling at me? How anthropomorphism impacts the effectiveness of desirability vs. feasibility appeals in sustainability advertising. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 51, 352–361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2019.06.020
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heo, M., & Lee, K. J. (2018). Chatbot as a new business communication tool: The case of Naver Talktalk. Business Communication Research and Practice, 1(1), 41–45. https://doi.org/10.22682/bcrp.2018.1.1.41
   Google Scholar
• Hill, J., Randolph, F. W., & Farreras, I. G. (2015). Real conversations with artificial intelligence: A comparison between human–human online conversations and human–chatbot conversations. Computers in Human Behavior, 49, 245–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.02.026
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ho, A., Hancock, J., & Miner, A. S. (2018). Psychological, relational, and emotional effects of self-disclosure after conversations with a chatbot. The Journal of Communication, 68(4), 712–733.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoegg, J., & Lewis, M. V. (2011). The impact of candidate appearance and advertising strategies on election results. Journal of Marketing Research, 48(5), 895–909. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkr.48.5.895
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang, M. H., & Rust, R. T. (2018). Artificial intelligence in service. Journal of Service Research, 21(2), 155–172. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094670517752459
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jamil, S. (2018). Politics in a digital age: The impact of new media technologies on public participation and political campaign in Pakistan’s 2018 elections—a case study of Karachi. Global Media Journal, 16(31), 1–9.
   Google Scholar
• Kim, S. Y., Schmitt, B. H., & Thalmann, N. M. (2019). Eliza in the uncanny valley: Anthropomorphizing consumer robots increases their perceived warmth but decreases liking. Marketing Letters, 30(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11002-019-09485-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, Y., & Sundar, S. S. (2012). Anthropomorphism of computers: Is it mindful or mindless? Computers in Human Behavior, 28(1), 241–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2011.09.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koh, Y. J., & Sundar, S. S. (2010). Heuristic versus systematic processing of specialist versus generalist sources in online media. Human Communication Research, 36(2), 103–124. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2010.01370.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kreiss, D., & McGregor, S. C. (2018). Technology firms shape political communication: The work of Microsoft, Facebook, Twitter, and Google with campaigns during the 2016 US presidential cycle. Political Communication, 35(2), 155–177. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2017.1364814
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lau, R. R., Kleinberg, M. S., & Ditonto, T. M. (2018). Measuring voter decision strategies in political behavior and public opinion research. Public Opinion Quarterly, 82(S1), 911–936. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfy004
   Google Scholar
• Lee, H., & Cho, C. H. (2020a). Digital advertising: present and future prospects. International Journal of Advertising, 39(3), 332–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/02650487.2019.1642015
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, H., & Cho, C. H. (2020b). Uses and gratifications of smart speakers: Modelling the effectiveness of smart speaker advertising. International Journal of Advertising, 39(7), 1150–1171. https://doi.org/10.1080/02650487.2020.1765657
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, S., Lee, N., & Sah, Y. J. (2020). Perceiving a mind in a chatbot: Effect of mind perception and social cues on co-presence, closeness, and intention to use. International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction, 36(10), 930–940. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2019.1699748
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, Y. C., Yamashita, N., Huang, Y., & Fu, W. (2020). “I hear you, I feel you”: Encouraging deep self-disclosure through a chatbot [Paper presentation]. Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, April, New York, NY, USA.
   Google Scholar
• Liu, B., & Sundar, S. S. (2018). Should machines express sympathy and empathy? Experiments with a health advice chatbot. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 21(10), 625–636. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2018.0110
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, S. S., & Stout, P. A. (1987). Effects of message modality and appeal on advertising acceptance. Psychology and Marketing, 4(3), 167–187. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.4220040303
   Google Scholar
• Liu, X. (2019). A big data approach to examining social bots on Twitter. Journal of Services Marketing, 33(4), 369–379. https://doi.org/10.1108/JSM-02-2018-0049
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, Y., & Shrum, L. J. (2002). What is interactivity and is it always such a good thing? Implications of definition, person, and situation for the influence of interactivity on advertising effectiveness. Journal of Advertising, 31(4), 53–64. https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.2002.10673685
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, Y., & Shrum, L. J. (2009). A dual-process model of interactivity effects. Journal of Advertising, 38(2), 53–68. https://doi.org/10.2753/JOA0091-3367380204
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loader, B. D., & Mercea, D. (2011). Networking democracy? Social media innovations and participatory politics. Information, Communication & Society, 14(6), 757–769. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2011.592648
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lucas, G. M., Gratch, J., King, A., & Morency, L. P. (2014). It’s only a computer: Virtual humans increase willingness to disclose. Computers in Human Behavior, 37, 94–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.04.043
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meng, J., & Dai, Y. (2021). Emotional support from AI chatbots: Should a supportive partner self-disclose or not? Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 26(4), 207–222. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcmc/zmab005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mou, Y., & Xu, K. (2017). The media inequality: Comparing the initial human-human and human-AI social interactions. Computers in Human Behavior, 72, 432–440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.02.067
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nass, C., & Moon, Y. (2000). Machines and mindlessness: Social responses to computers. Journal of Social Issues, 56(1), 81–103. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00153
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nass, C., Steuer, J., & Tauber, E. R. (1994). Computers are social actors [Paper presentation]. Proceedings of the ACM CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, New York, NY.
   Google Scholar
• Pantano, E., & Pizzi, G. (2020). Forecasting artificial intelligence on online customer assistance: Evidence from chatbot patents analysis. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 55, 102096. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2020.102096
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peitzker, T. (2020). Uses and risks of business chatbots: Guidelines for purchasers in the public and private sectors. Business Expert Press.
   Google Scholar
• Pinkleton, B. E., Austin, E. W., & Fortman, K. K. (1998). Relationships of media use and political disaffection to political efficacy and voting behavior. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 42(1), 34–49. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838159809364433
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ponathil, A., Ozkan, F., Welch, B., Bertrand, J., & Chalil Madathil, K. (2020). Family health history collected by virtual conversational agents: An empirical study to investigate the efficacy of this approach. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 29(6), 1081–1092. https://doi.org/10.1002/jgc4.1239
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rafaeli, S. (1988). Interactivity: From new media to communication. In R. P. Hawkins, J.M. Wiemann, & S. Pingree (Eds.), Advancing communication science: Merging mass and interpersonal processes (pp. 110–134). Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Rhim, J., Kwak, M., Gong, Y., & Gweon, G. (2022). Application of humanization to survey chatbots: Change in chatbot perception, interaction experience, and survey data quality. Computers in Human Behavior, 126, 107034. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.107034
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roy, R., & Naidoo, V. (2021). Enhancing chatbot effectiveness: The role of anthropomorphic conversational styles and time orientation. Journal of Business Research, 126, 23–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.12.051
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schuetzler, R. M., Grimes, G. M., & Giboney, J. S. (2019). The effect of conversational agent skill on user behavior during deception. Computers in Human Behavior, 97, 250–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.03.033
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shi, W., Liu, D., Yang, J., Zhang, J., Wen, S., & Su, J. (2020). Social bots’ sentiment engagement in health emergencies: A topic-based analysis of the COVID-19 pandemic discussions on Twitter. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(22), 8701. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17228701
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smutny, P., & Schreiberova, P. (2020). Chatbots for learning: A review of educational chatbots for the Facebook Messenger. Computers & Education, 151, 103862. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.103862
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Song, J. H., Hollenbeck, C. R., & Zinkhan, G. M. (2008). The value of human warmth: Social presence cues and computer-mediated communications. Advances in Consumer Research, 35, 793–794.
   Google Scholar
• Stein, J. P., & Ohler, P. (2017). Venturing into the uncanny valley of mind—the influence of mind attribution on the acceptance of human-like characters in a virtual reality setting. Cognition, 160, 43–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2016.12.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sundar, S. S. (2009). Media effects 2.0: Social and psychological effects of communication technologies. In R. L. Nabi & M. B. Oliver (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of media processes and effects (pp. 545–560). Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Sundar, S. S., Bellur, S., Oh, J., Jia, H., & Kim, H. S. (2016). Theoretical importance of contingency in human-computer interaction: Effects of message interactivity on user engagement. Communication Research, 43(5), 595–625. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650214534962
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sundar, S. S., Kalyanaraman, S., & Brown, J. (2003). Explicating web site interactivity: Impression formation effects in political campaign sites. Communication Research, 30(1), 30–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650202239025
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van den Broeck, E., Zarouali, B., & Poels, K. (2019). chatbot advertising effectiveness: When does the message get through? Computers in Human Behavior, 98, 150–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.04.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veglis, A., & Maniou, T. A. (2019). Chatbots on the rise: A new narrative in journalism. Studies in Media and Communication, 7(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.11114/smc.v7i1.3986
   Google Scholar
• Waddell, T. F. (2019). Can an algorithm reduce the perceived bias of news? Testing the effect of machine attribution on news readers’ evaluations of bias, anthropomorphism, and credibility. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 96(1), 82–100. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699018815891
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waytz, A., Heafner, J., & Epley, N. (2014). The mind in the machine: Anthropomorphism increases trust in an autonomous vehicle. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 52, 113–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2014.01.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu, G. (2005). The mediating role of perceived interactivity in the effect of actual interactivity on attitude toward the website. Journal of Interactive Advertising, 5(2), 29–39. https://doi.org/10.1080/15252019.2005.10722099
   Google Scholar
• Xu, Q., & Sundar, S. S. (2014). Lights, camera, music, interaction! Interactive persuasion in e-commerce. Communication Research, 41(2), 282–308. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650212439062
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zumstein, D., & Hundertmark, S. (2017). Chatbots—an interactive technology for personalized communication, transactions and services. IADIS International Journal on WWW/Internet, 15(1), 96–109.
   Google Scholar