835
Views
19
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

The evaluative information ecology: On the frequency and diversity of “good” and “bad”

, &
Pages 216-270 | Received 05 Feb 2019, Accepted 29 Oct 2019, Published online: 24 Nov 2019

References

  • Abele, A., & Wojciszke, B. (Eds.). (2018). Agency and communion in social psychology. London: Routledge.
  • Altemeyer, B. (1998). The other “authoritarian personality”. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 30, 47–92.
  • Alves, H, Koch, A, & Unkelbach, C. (2016). My friends are all alike — the relation between liking and perceived similarity in person perception. Journal Of Experimental Social Psychology, 62, 103–117. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2015.10.011
  • Alves, H., Koch, A., & Unkelbach, C. (2017a). Why good is more alike than bad: Processing implications. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 21, 72–82.
  • Alves, H., Koch, A., & Unkelbach, C. (2017b). The “common good” phenomenon: Why similarities are positive and differences are negative. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 146, 512–528.
  • Alves, H., Koch, A., & Unkelbach, C. (2018). A cognitive-ecological explanation of intergroup biases. Psychological Science, 29, 1126–1133.
  • Alves, H., Koch, A., & Unkelbach, C. (2019). The differential similarity of positive and negative information—An affect-induced processing outcome? Cognition and Emotion, 33, 1224–1238.
  • Alves, H., Unkelbach, C., Burghardt, J., Koch, A., Krüger, T., & Becker, V. D. (2015). A density explanation of valence asymmetries in recognition memory. Memory & Cognition, 43, 896–909.
  • Andrews, F. M. (1991). Stability and change in levels and structure of subjective well-being: U.S.A. 1972 and 1988. Social Indicators Research., 25, 1–30.
  • Arnold, M. B. (1960). Emotion and personality. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
  • Asch, S. E. (1956). Studies of independence and conformity: I. A minority of one against a unanimous majority. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 70, 1–70.
  • Ashton, M. C., & Lee, K. (2004). A defence of the lexical approach to the study of personality structure. European Journal of Personality, 19, 5–24.
  • Augustine, A. A., Mehl, M. R., & Larsen, R. J. (2011). A positivity bias in written and spoken English and its moderation by personality and gender. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2, 508–515.
  • Axelrod, R., & Hamilton, W. D. (1981). The evolution of cooperation. Science, 211(4489), 1390–1396.
  • Bakan, D. (1966). The duality of human existence: Isolation and communion in Western man. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
  • Bargh, J. A., Chaiken, S., Govender, R., & Pratto, F. (1992). The generality of the automatic evaluation effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 893–912.
  • Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Finkenauer, C., & Vohs, K. D. (2001). Bad is stronger than good. Review of General Psychology, 5, 323–370.
  • Bentham, J. (1996). The collected works of Jeremy Bentham: An introduction to the principles of morals and legislation. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
  • Berg, J., Dickhaut, J., & McCabe, K. (1995). Trust, reciprocity, and social-history. Games and Economic Behavior, 10, 122–142.
  • Bless, H., & Fiedler, K. (2006). Mood and the regulation of information processing and behavior. In J. P. Forgas (Ed.), Hearts and minds: Affective influences on social cognition and behavior (pp. 65–84). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
  • Bohner, G., & Dickel, N. (2011). Attitudes and attitude change. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 391–417.
  • Boucher, J., & Osgood, C. E. (1969). The Pollyanna hypothesis. Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior, 8, 1–8.
  • Bradley, M. M., & Lang, P. J. (1999). Affective norms for English words (ANEW): Stimuli, instruction manual and affective ratings (Technical Report C-1). Gainesville, FL: The Center for Research in Psychophysiology, University of Florida.
  • Brans, K., Koval, P., Verduyn, P., Lim, Y. L., & Kuppens, P. (2013). The regulation of negative and positive affect in daily life. Emotion, 13, 926–939.
  • Brewer, M. B. (1991). The social self: On being the same and different at the same time. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17, 475–482.
  • Bruckmüller, S., & Abele, A. E. (2013). The density of the big two. Social Psychology, 44, 63–74.
  • Brunswik, E. (1955). Representative design and probabilistic theory in a functional psychology. Psychological Review, 62, 193–217.
  • Bybee, J. (2010). Markedness: Iconicity, economy and frequency. In J. J. Song (Ed.), Handbook of Linguistic Typology (pp. 131–147). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
  • Camerer, C. (2003). Behavioral game theory: Experiments in strategic interaction. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
  • Cialdini, R. B., & Goldstein, N. J. (2004). Social influence: Compliance and conformity. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 591–621.
  • Cilibrasi, R. L., & Vitanyi, P. M. B. (2007). The Google similarity distance. IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering, 19, 370–383.
  • Clark, H. H., & Clark, E. V. (1977). Psychology and language: An introduction to psycholinguistics. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
  • Combs, B., & Slovic, P. (1979). Newspaper coverage of causes of death. Journalism Quarterly, 56(4), 837–849.
  • Cooper, W. H. (1981). Ubiquitous halo. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 218–244.
  • Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Hunter, J. (2003). Happiness in everyday life: The uses of experience sampling. Journal of Happiness Studies, 4, 185–199.
  • Denrell, J. (2005). Why most people disapprove of me: Experience sampling in impression formation. Psychological Review, 112, 951–978.
  • Denrell, J. (2007). Adaptive learning and risk taking. Psychological Review, 114, 177–187.
  • Denrell, J., & Le Mens, G. (2007). Interdependent sampling and social influence. Psychological Review, 114, 398–422.
  • Diener, E., & Diener, C. (1996). Most people are happy. Psychological Science, 7, 181–185.
  • Dion, K., Berscheid, E., & Walster, E. (1972). What is beautiful is good. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24, 285–290.
  • Dodds, P. S., Clark, E. M., Desu, S., Frank, M. A., Reagan, A. J., Williams, J. R., … Danforth, C. M. (2015). Human language reveals a universal positivity bias. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112, 2389–2394.
  • Dunning, D. (2011). The Dunning–Kruger effect: On being ignorant of one’s own ignorance. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 247–296.
  • Ekman, P., Friesen, W. V., & Ellsworth, P. (1982). What emotion categories or dimensions can observers judge from facial behavior? In P. Ekman (Ed.), Emotion in the human face (pp. 39–55). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
  • Fazio, R. H., Eiser, J. R., & Shook, N. J. (2004). Attitude formation through exploration: Valence asymmetries. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 293–311.
  • Fazio, R. H., Sanbonmatsu, D. M., Powell, M. C., & Kardes, F. R. (1986). On the automatic activation of attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 229–238.
  • Fiedler, K. (2000). Beware of samples! A cognitive-ecological sampling approach to judgment biases. Psychological Review, 107, 659–676.
  • Fiedler, K. (2014). From intrapsychic to ecological theories in social psychology: Outlines of a functional theory approach. European Journal of Social Psychology, 44, 657–670.
  • Fiedler, K., & Juslin, P. (Eds.). (2006). Information sampling and adaptive cognition. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
  • Fiedler, K., Kutzner, F., & Vogel, T. (2013). Pseudocontingencies: Logically unwarranted but smart inferences. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22, 324–329.
  • Forgas, J. P. (2008). Affect and cognition. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 94–101.
  • Fredrickson, B. L. (2013). Updated thinking on positivity ratios. American Psychologist, 68, 814–822.
  • Gigerenzer, G., & Todd, P. M. the ABC Research Group(1999). Simple heuristics that make us smart. Oxford, UK: University Press.
  • Goldberg, L. R. (1981). Language and individual differences: The search for universals in personality lexicons. In L. Wheeler (Ed.), Review of personality and social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 141–165). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
  • Goldstone, R. L., & Son, J. Y. (2005). Similarity. In K. J. Holyoak & R. G. Morrison (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of thinking and reasoning (pp. 13–36). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
  • Goodman, N. (1972). Seven strictures on similarity. In N. Goodman (Ed.), Problems and Projects (pp. 22–32). New York, NY: Bobbs-Merrill.
  • Gottman, J. M. (1994). What predicts divorce? The relationship between marital processes and marital outcomes. New York, NY: Erlbaum.
  • Gräf, M., & Unkelbach, C. (2016). Halo effects in trait assessment depend on information valence: Why being honest makes you industrious, but lying does not make you lazy. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 42, 290–310.
  • Gräf, M., & Unkelbach, C. (2018). Halo effects from agency behaviors and communion behaviors depend on social context: Why technicians benefit more from showing tidiness than nurses do. European Journal of Social Psychology, 48, 701–717.
  • Grant, A. M., & Schwartz, B. (2011). Too much of a good thing: The challenge and opportunity of the inverted U. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 61–76.
  • Gray, J. A. (1982). The neuropsychology of anxiety. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
  • Griffiths, T. L., Steyvers, M., & Tenenbaum, J. B. (2007). Topics in semantic representation. Psychological Review, 114, 211–244.
  • Gupta, P., Lipinski, J., Abbs, B., Lin, P. H., Aktunc, E., Ludden, D., … Newman, R. (2004). Space aliens and nonwords: Stimuli for investigating the learning of novel word-meaning pairs. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36, 599–603.
  • Hamilton, D. L., & Gifford, R. K. (1976). Illusory correlation in interpersonal perception: A cognitive basis of stereotypic judgments. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 12, 392–407.
  • Hardin, G. (1968). The tragedy of the commons. Science, 162(3859), 1243–1248.
  • Herzog, S. M., & Hertwig, R. (2013). The ecological validity of fluency. In C. Unkelbach & R. Greifeneder (Eds.), The experience of thinking: How the fluency of mental processes influences cognition and behaviour (pp. 11–32). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
  • Hodges, S. D. (2005). A feature-based model of self-other comparisons. In M. D. Alicke, D. A. Dunning, & J. I. Krueger (Eds.), The self in social judgment (pp. 131–153). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
  • Hout, M. C., Goldinger, S. D., & Ferguson, R. W. (2013). The versatility of SpAM: A fast, efficient, spatial method of data collection for multidimensional scaling. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 142, 256–281.
  • Imhoff, R., & Koch, A. (2017). How orthogonal are the Big Two of social perception? On the curvilinear relation between agency and communion. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12, 122–137.
  • Ito, T. A., Larsen, J. T., Smith, N. K., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1998). Negative information weighs more heavily on the brain: The negativity bias in evaluative categorizations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 887–900.
  • Izard, C. E. (1971). The face of emotion. New York, NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
  • Izard, C. E. (2009). Emotion theory and research: Highlights, unanswered questions, and emerging issues. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 1–25.
  • James, W. (1884). What is an emotion? Mind, 9, 188–205.
  • Johnson, N. D., & Mislin, A. A. (2011). Trust games: A meta-analysis. Journal Of Economic Psychology, 32, 865–889.
  • Jones, M. N., & Mewhort, D. J. (2007). Representing word meaning and order information in a composite holographic lexicon. Psychological Review, 114, 1–37.
  • Juslin, P. (1994). The overconfidence phenomenon as a consequence of informal experimenter-guided selection of almanac items. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 57, 226–246.
  • Kanouse, D. E., & Hanson, L. R. (1972). Negativity in evaluations. In E. E. Jones, D. E. Kanouse, H. H. Kelley, R. E. Nisbett, S. Valins, & B. Weiner (Eds.), Attribution: Perceiving the causes of behavior (pp. 47–62). Morristown: General Learning Press.
  • Koch, A., Alves, H., Krüger, T., & Unkelbach, C. (2016). A general valence asymmetry in similarity: Good is more alike than bad. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 42, 1171–1192.
  • Koch, A. S., Imhoff, R., Dotsch, R., Unkelbach, C., & Alves, H. (2016). The ABC of stereotypes about groups: Agency/socioeconomic success, conservative–Progressive beliefs, and communion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 110, 675–709.
  • Krumhansl, C. L. (1978). Concerning the applicability of geometric models to similarity data: The interrelationship between similarity and spatial density. Psychological Review, 85, 445–463.
  • Kucera, H., & Francis, W. (1967). Computational analysis of present-day American English. Providence, RI: Brown University Press.
  • Kunda, Z. (1990). The case for motivated reasoning. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 480–498.
  • Lang, P. J., Bradley, M. M., & Cuthbert, B. N. (2005). International affective picture system (IAPS): Affective ratings of pictures and instruction manual. Gainesville, FL: Center for the Study of Emotion & Attention.
  • Langston, C. A. (1994). Capitalizing on and coping with daily-life events: Expressive responses to positive events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 1112–1125.
  • Latané, B. (1981). The psychology of social impact. American Psychologist, 36, 343–356.
  • Leising, D., Erbs, J., & Fritz, U. (2010). The letter of recommendation effect in informant ratings of personality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98, 668–682.
  • Leising, D., Ostrovski, O., & Borkenau, P. (2012). Vocabulary for describing disliked persons is more differentiated than vocabulary for describing liked persons. Journal of Research in Personality, 46, 393–396.
  • Leising, D., Scherbaum, S., Locke, K. D., & Zimmermann, J. (2015). A model of “substance” and “evaluation” in person judgments. Journal of Research in Personality, 57, 61–71.
  • Lewin, K. (1939). Field theory and experiment in social psychology: Concepts and methods. American Journal of Sociology, 44, 868–896.
  • Lewin, K. (1943). Psychological ecology. In D. Cartwright (Ed.), Field Theory in social science: Selected theoretical papers by Kurt Lewin (pp. 17–187). London, UK: Social Science Paperbacks.
  • Lewin, K. (1951). Field theory in social science. New York, NY: Harper.
  • Lichtenstein, S., & Fischhoff, B. (1977). Do those who know more also know more about how much they know. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 20, 159–183.
  • Lichtenstein, S., Slovic, P., Fischhoff, B., Layman, M., & Combs, B. (1978). Judged frequency of lethal events. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 4, 551–578.
  • Lund, K., & Burgess, C. (1996). Producing high-dimensional semantic spaces from lexical co-occurrence. Behavioral Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 28, 203–208.
  • Lyubomirsky, S., Sousa, L., & Dickerhoof, R. (2006). The costs and benefits of writing, talking, and thinking about life’s triumphs and defeats. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 692–708.
  • Matlin, M. W., & Stang, D. J. (1978). The Pollyanna principle: Selectivity in language, memory, and thought. Cambridge, MA: Shenkman.
  • McDougall, W. (1926). An introduction to social psychology. Boston, MA: Luce.
  • Medin, D. L., Goldstone, R. L., & Gentner, D. (1993). Respects for similarity. Psychological Review, 100, 254–278.
  • Mehl, M. R., Pennebaker, J. W., Crow, M., Dabbs, J., & Price, J. (2001). The electronically activated recorder (EAR): A device for sampling naturalistic daily activities and conversations. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 33, 517–523.
  • Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioral study of obedience. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 69, 137–143.
  • Mowrer, O. H. (1960). Learning theory and behavior. New York, NY: Wiley.
  • Oatley, K., & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1987). Towards a cognitive theory of emotions. Cognition & Emotion, 1, 29–50.
  • Olds, J. M., & Westerman, D. L. (2012). Can fluency be interpreted as novelty? Retraining the interpretation of fluency in recognition memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 38, 653–664.
  • Ortony, A., & Turner, T. J. (1990). What’s basic about basic emotions? Psychological Review, 97, 315–331.
  • Osgood, C. E., Suci, G. J., & Tannenbaum, P. H. (1957). The measurement of meaning. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
  • Panksepp, J. (1982). Toward a general psychobiological theory of emotions. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 5, 407–467.
  • Peeters, G. (2002). From good and bad to can and must: Subjective necessity of acts associated with positively and negatively valued stimuli. European Journal of Social Psychology, 32, 125–136.
  • Peeters, G., & Czapinski, J. (1990). Positive-negative asymmetry in evaluations: The distinction between affective and informational negativity effects. European Review of Social Psychology, 1, 33–60.
  • Plutchik, R. (1980). A general psychoevolutionary theory of emotion. In R. Plutchik & H. Kellerman Eds. Emotion: Theory, research, and experience (Vol. 1. Theories of emotion, pp. 3–31). New York, NY: Academic Press.
  • Potter, T., Corneille, O., Ruys, K. I., & Rhodes, G. (2007). ‘Just another pretty face’: A multidimensional scaling approach to face attractiveness and variability. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14, 368–372.
  • Rauthmann, J. F., Gallardo-Pujol, D., Guillaume, E. M., Todd, E., Nave, C. S., Sherman, R. A., … Funder, D. C. (2014). The situational eight DIAMONDS: A taxonomy of major dimensions of situation characteristics. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 107, 677–718.
  • Reber, R., & Schwarz, N. (1999). Effects of perceptual fluency on judgments of truth. Consciousness and Cognition, 8, 338–342.
  • Reber, R., & Unkelbach, C. (2010). The epistemic status of processing fluency as source for judgments of truth. Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 1, 563–581.
  • Reis, H. T., Smith, S. M., Carmichael, C. L., Caprariello, P. A., Tsai, -F.-F., Rodrigues, A., & Maniaci, M. R. (2010). Are you happy for me? How sharing positive events with others provides personal and interpersonal benefits. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99, 311–329.
  • Rhodes, G. (2006). The evolutionary psychology of facial beauty. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 199–226.
  • Rothbart, M., & Park, B. (1986). On the confirmability and disconfirmability of trait concepts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 131–142.
  • Rozin, P., Berman, L., & Royzman, E. (2010). Biases in use of positive and negative words across twenty natural languages. Cognition and Emotion, 24, 536–548.
  • Rozin, P., & Royzman, E. B. (2001). Negativity bias, negativity dominance, and contagion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5, 296–320.
  • Sally, D. (1995). Conversation and cooperation in social dilemmas: A meta-analysis of experiments from 1958 to 1992. Rationality and Society, 7, 58–92.
  • Schimmack, U. (2003). Affect measurement in experience sampling research. Journal of Happiness Studies, 4, 79–106.
  • Schwarz, N. (2012). Feelings-as-information theory. In P. A. M. Van Lange, A. W. Kruglanski, & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology (pp. 289–308). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  • Sears, D. O. (1983). The person-positivity bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 233–250.
  • Sherif, M., Harvey, O. J., White, B. J., Hood, W. R., & Sherif, C. W. (1961). Intergroup conflict and cooperation: The Robbers Cave experiment. Norman, OK: University Book Exchange.
  • Sherman, J. W., Kruschke, J. K., Sherman, S. J., Percy, E. J., Petrocelli, J. V., & Conrey, F. R. (2009). Attentional processes in stereotype formation: A common model for category accentuation and illusory correlation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 305–323.
  • Skowronski, J. J., & Carlston, D. E. (1987). Social judgment and social memory: The role of cue diagnosticity in negativity, positivity, and extremity biases. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 689–699.
  • Skowronski, J. J., & Carlston, D. E. (1989). Negativity and extremity biases in impression formation: A review of explanations. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 131–142.
  • Smallman, R., & Roese, N. J. (2008). Preference invites categorization. Psychological Science, 19, 1228–1232.
  • Stroessner, S. J., & Mackie, D. M. (1992). The impact of induced affect on the perception of variability in social groups. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 546–554.
  • Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–47). Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole.
  • Tajfel, H., & Wilkes, A. L. (1963). Classification and quantitative judgement. British Journal of Psychology, 54, 101–114.
  • Thomas, D. L., & Diener, E. (1990). Memory accuracy in the recall of emotions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 291–297.
  • Thorndike, E. L. (1898). Animal intelligence: An experimental study of the associative processes in animals. The Psychological Review: Monograph Supplements, 2, 1–109.
  • Thorndike, E. L. (1920). A constant error in psychological ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 4, 25–29.
  • Todorov, A., Dotsch, R., Porter, J. M., Oosterhof, N. N., & Falvello, V. B. (2013). Validation of data-driven computational models of social perception of faces. Emotion, 13, 724–738.
  • Tomkins, S. S. (1984). Affect theory. In K. R. Scherer & P. Ekman (Eds.), Approaches to emotion (pp. 163–195). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
  • Topolinski, S., & Deutsch, R. (2013). Phasic affective modulation of semantic priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 39, 414–436.
  • Tversky, A. (1977). Features of similarity. Psychological Review, 84, 327–352.
  • Tversky, A., & Gati, I. (1978). Studies of similarity. In E. Rosch & B. B. Lloyd (Eds.), Cognition and categorization (pp. 79–98). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
  • Unkelbach, C. (2006). The learned interpretation of cognitive fluency. Psychological Science, 17, 339–345.
  • Unkelbach, C. (2007). Reversing the truth effect: Learning the interpretation of processing fluency in judgments of truth. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 33, 219–230.
  • Unkelbach, C., & Greifeneder, R. (2013). A general model of fluency effects in judgment and decision making. In C. Unkelbach & R. Greifeneder (Eds.), The experience of thinking: How the fluency of mental processes influences cognition and behaviour (pp. 11–32). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
  • Unkelbach, C., Fiedler, K., Bayer, M., Stegmüller, M., & Danner, D. (2008). Why positive information is processed faster: The density hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 36–49.
  • Unkelbach, C., Guastella, A. J., & Forgas, J. P. (2008). Oxytocin selectively facilitates recognition of positive sex and relationship words. Psychological Science, 19, 1092–1094.
  • Unkelbach, C., Koch, A., Silva, R. R., & Garcia-Marques, T. (2019). Truth by repetition: Explanations and implications. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 28, 247–253.
  • Unkelbach, C., & Rom, S. C. (2017). A referential theory of the repetition-induced truth effect. Cognition, 160, 110–126.
  • Unkelbach, C., von Hippel, W., Forgas, J. P., Robinson, M. D., Shakarchi, R. J., & Hawkins, C. (2010). Good things come easy: Subjective exposure frequency and the faster processing of positive information. Social Cognition, 28, 538–555.
  • Veenhoven, R., Ehrhardt, J., Ho, M. D., & de Vries, A. (1993). Happiness in nations: Subjective appreciation of life in 56 nations 1946–1992. Rotterdam, Netherlands: Erasmus University Rotterdam.
  • Verhaeghen, P., Aikman, S. N., & Van Gulick, A. E. (2011). Prime and prejudice: Cooccurrence in the culture as a source of automatic stereotype priming. British Journal of Social Psychology, 50, 501–518.
  • Walasek, L., & Stewart, N. (2015). How to make loss aversion disappear and reverse: Tests of the decision by sampling origin of loss aversion. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144, 7–11.
  • Warriner, A. B., & Kuperman, V. (2015). Affective biases in English are bi-dimensional. Cognition and Emotion, 29, 1147–1167.
  • Warriner, A. B., Kuperman, V., & Brysbaert, M. (2013). Norms of valence, arousal, and dominance for 13,915 English lemmas. Behavior Research Methods, 45, 1191–1207.
  • Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20, 158–177.
  • Watson, J. B. (1930). Behaviorism. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
  • Weiner, B., & Graham, S. (1984). An attributional approach to emotional development. In C. E. Izard, J. Kagan, & R. B. Zajonc (Eds.), Emotions, cognition, and behavior (pp. 167–191). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
  • Williams, T. F., & Simms, L. J. (2018). Personality traits and maladaptivity: Unipolarity versus bipolarity. Journal of Personality, 86, 888–901.
  • Zajonc, R. B. (1968). Attitudinal effects of mere exposure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 9, 1–27.
  • Zajonc, R. B. (2001). Mere exposure: A gateway to the subliminal. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10, 224–228.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.