Mercury Measurement and Its Control: What We Know, Have Learned, and Need to Further Investigate

REFERENCES

• ABB et al. Ultra High Efficiency ESP Development for Air Toxics; Final Report under Phase I DOE/FETC Mega PRDA Program (period of performance September 1995 to July 1997), September 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Akers, D.R.; Dospoy, C.R. The Effect of Coal Cleaning on Trace Element; Draft Report, Development of Algorithms; prepared for the Electric Power Research Intitute by CQ, Inc.: December 16, 1993.
   Google Scholar
• Akers, D.J.; Raleigh, C.E., Jr. The Mechanisms of Trace Element Removal During Coal Cleaning, Coal Preparation; 1998; Vol. 19, Nos. 3–4.
   Google Scholar
• Biswas, P.; Zachariah, M. “In Situ Immobilization of Lead Species in Combustion Environments by Injection of Gas Phase Silica Sorbent Precursors,” Environmental Science Technology 1997, 31, 2455.
   Google Scholar
• Biswas P.; Wu, C.Y. “Control of Toxic Metal Emission from Combus-tors Using Sorbents—A Review,” J. Air & Waste Manage. Assoc. 1998, 48, 113–127.
   Google Scholar
• Biswas, P.; Lee, T.G. “Control of Toxic Metal Emissions from Coal Combustors,” Final Reports, Projects B2.7 and 3.7, Ohio Coal Development Organization, 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Blythe, G.M.; Carey, T.R.; Richardson, C.F.; Meserole, F.B.; Rhudy, RG.; Brown, T.D. “Enhanced Control of Mercury by Wet Flue Gas Desulfurization Systems,” Presented at the 92nd Annual Meeting & Exhibition of the Air & Waste Management Association, St. Louis, MO, June 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Brown, R.C. et al. “Effects of fly ash on mercury oxidation during post-combustion conditions”; abstract from a proposal submitted to the U.S. Department of Energy/Federal Energy Technology Center; Contract awarded in response to Program Solicitation No. DE-PS26-98FT98200; November 26, 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Brown, T.D.; O'Dowd, W.J.; Reuter, R.B.I.; Smith, D.N.A. “Control of mercury emissions from coal-fired power plants: A preliminary cost assessment.” In Proceedings of the U.S. Department of Energy/Federal Energy Technology Center Advanced Coal-Based Power and Environmental Systems' 98 Conference, July 21-23, 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Brown, T.D. “How big is the challenge: Controlling Hgo and Hg2+ in the glue gas from the combustion of coal.” Presented at the Fourth EPRI International Conference on Managing Hazardous Air Pollutants, Washington, DC, November 14, 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Browning, B.J.; Casey, A.D.; Hindocha, A.K.; Bustard, C.J.; Grubb, W.T.“Operation and Performance of COHPAC at TU Electric's Big Brown Station,” Presented at the EPRI/DOE/EPA Combined Utility Air Pollutant Control Symposium, Washington, D.C., August 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Bush, P. et al. Tests on a Coal Preparation Plant and the Associated Cyclone-Fired Unit Equipped with A Wet Venturi Scrubber; Final Report, DOE Contract No. DE-AC-93PC93254, under U.S. Department of Energy/Federal Energy Technology Center, Comprehensive Assessment of Air Toxics Program, December 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Carey, T.R.; Hargrove, O.W., Jr.; Richardson, C.F.; Chang, R.; Meserole, F.B. “Performance of activated carbon for mercury control in utility flue gas using sorbent injection.” Presented at the Fourth EPRI International Conference on Managing Hazardous Air Pollutants, Washington, DC, November 14, 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Carey, T.R; Hargrove, O.W., Jr.; Richardson, C.F.; Chang, R.; Meserole, F.B. “Performance of activated carbon for mercury control in utility flue gas using sorbent injection.” In Proceedings of the EPRI/DOE/ EPA Combined Utility Air Pollutant Control Symposium, EPRI TR-108683-V3; Washington, DC, August 25-29, 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Carey, T.R; Hargrove, O.W., Jr.; Brown, T.D.; Rhudy, R.G. “Enhanced control of mercury in wet FGD systems.” Presented at the First Joint DOE-PETC Power and Fuel Systems Contractors Conference, U.S. Department of Energy, Pittsburgh, PA, July 9-11, 1996.
   Google Scholar
• Carey, T.R; Hargrove, O.W., Jr.; Brown, T.D.; Rhudy, R.G. “Enhanced control of mercury in wet FGD systems.” Presented at the 89th Annual Meeting and Exhibition of the Air & Waste Management Association, Nashville, TN, June 1996; paper no. 96-P64B.02.
   Google Scholar
• Cavallaro, J.A.; Deurbrouch, A.W.; Schultz, H.; Gibbon, G.A.; Hattman, E.A. “A Washability and Analytical Evaluation of Potential Pollution from Trace Elements in Coal,” Study conducted under EPA Interagency Agreement No. DXE685-AJ, Report - EPA-600/7-78-038, March 1978.
   Google Scholar
• Chang, R.; Offen, G. Power Eng. 1995, 99 (11), 51–57.
   Google Scholar
• Chen, S.; Rostam-Abadi, M.; Chang, R. “Mercury removal from combustion flue gas by activated carbon injection: Mass transfer effects.” In Proceedings of the American Chemical Society, New Orleans, LA, March 23-28, 1996.
   Google Scholar
• DeVito, M.S.; Tumati, P.R.; Carlson, R.J.; Bloom, N. “Sampling and analysis of mercury in combustion flue gas.” Presented at the second EPRI International Conference on Managing Hazardous Air Pollutants, Washington, DC, July 1993.
   Google Scholar
• DeVito, M.S.; Rosenhoover, W.A. “Flue gas mercury and speciation studies at coal-fired utilities equipped with wet scrubbers.” Presented at the Fourth EPRI International Conference on Managing Hazardous Air Pollutants, Washington, DC, November 1997.
   Google Scholar
• DeVito, M.S.; Rosenhoover, W.A. “Hg flue gas measurements from coal-fired utilities equipped with wet scrubbers.” To be presented at the 92nd Annual Meeting and Exhibition of the Air & Waste Management Association, St. Louis, MO, June 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Dunham, G.E.; Miller, S.J.; Chang, R.; Pergman, P.D. “Investigation of mercury control in gaghouses with sorbents.” Presented at the 12th Annual International Pittsburgh Coal Conference, Pittsburgh, PA, September 1995.
   Google Scholar
• Dunham, G.E.; Miller, S.J.; Chang, R.; Bergman, P.D. “Factors affecting the utilization of sorbents for mercury control.” Presented at the 1996 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Meeting, New Orleans, LA, February 25-29, 1996.
   Google Scholar
• Dunham, G.E.; Miller, S.J.; Chang, R.L.; Bergman, P.D. “Investigation of mercury control in baghouses with sorbents.” Presented at the 89th Annual Meeting and Exhibition of the Air & Waste Management Association, Nashville, TN, June 1996; paper no. 96-WP64B.03.
   Google Scholar
• Dunham, G.E.; Miller, S.J. “Evaluation of activated carbon for control of mercury from coal-fired boilers.” Presented at the First Joint DOE-PETC Power and Fuel Systems Contractors Conference, U.S. Department of Energy, Pittsburgh, PA, July 9-11, 1996.
   Google Scholar
• Dunham, G.E.; Miller, S.J.; Chang, R.; Bergman, P.D. “Mercury capture by an activated carbon in a fixed-bed bench-scale system.” Presented at the 90th Annual Meeting and Exhibition of the Air & Waste Management Association, Toronto, Canada, June 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Dunham, G.E.; Miller, S.J. Investigation of Sorbent Injection for Mercury Control in Coal-Fired Boilers; Final Report prepared for the Electric Power Research Institute and the U.S. Department of Energy; September 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Duninin, M.M. “Water vapor adsorption and the microporous structures of carbonaceous adsorbents,” Carbon 1980 18, 355–364.
   Google Scholar
• Durham, M.D.; Bustard, J.C.; Baldrey, K.E.; Martin, C.E. “Cost-effective technology for enhanced ESP performance on low-sulfur coal.” Presented at the EPRI/DOE/EPA Combined Utility Air Pollution Control Symposium, Washington, DC, December 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Electric Power Annual 1997, Vol. II; Report No. DOE/EIA-0348(97)/2; Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy: October 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Electric Power Monthly; Report No. DOE/EIA 0226 (98/05); Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy: May 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Electric Utility Trace Substances Synthesis Report, Mercury in the Environment, Vols. 1-4; Report No. EPRI TR-104614-V3; Electric Power Research Institute: November 1994; Project 3081,3297.
   Google Scholar
• Electric Power Research Institute. “Power Plant Validation of the Mercury Speciation Sampling Method,” EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, and United States Department of Energy, TR-112588, Pittsburgh, PA, 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Energy Information Administration. “Cost and Quality of Fuels for Electric Utility Industry,” Washington, D.C., May 1997.
   Google Scholar
• SO2 and NOx Retrofit Control Technologies Handbook; Report No. EPRI CS-4277-SR Electric Power Research Institute: October 1995; pp 5–36.
   Google Scholar
• Ericksson, G.; Rosen, E. “Thermodynamic studies of high temperature equilibrium. VIII. General equations for the calculation of equilibria in multi-phase systems,” Chem. Scripta 1973, 19, 193–194.
   Google Scholar
• Feldman, P.L.; Mills, K. “Development of the Laminar-Flow Fine-Particle Agglomerator,” Presented at the EPRI/DOE/EPA Combined Utility Air Pollutant Control Symposium, Washington D.C., August 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Felsvang, K.; Gleiser, R.; Juip, G.; Nielsen, K.K. “Air Toxics Control by Spray Dryer Absorption Systems,” Presented at the EPRI Second International Conference on Managing Hazardous Air Pollutants, Washington D.C., July 1993.
   Google Scholar
• Ferris, D.D. et.al. Engineering Development of Advanced Physical Fine Coal Cleaning Technologies - Froth Flotation; ICF Kaiser Engineers Final Report for DOE Contract No. DE-AC22-88PC88881, December 1992.
   Google Scholar
• Flagan, R.C.; Seinfeld, J.H. Fundamentals of Air Pollution Engineering; Prentice Hall: Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1988; pp 217–219.
   Google Scholar
• Flora, J.R.V.; Vidic, R.D.; Liu W.; Thurnau, R.C. “Modeling powdered activated carbon injection for the uptake of elemental mercury vapors,” J. Air & Waste Manage. Assoc. 1998, 48, 1051–1059.
   Google Scholar
• Galbreath, K.C.; Zygarlicke, C.J. “Mercury speciation in coal combustion and gasification flue gases,” Environ. Sci. Technol 1996, 30, 2421–2426.
   Google Scholar
• Galbreath, K.C.; Zygarlicke, C.J.; Toman, D.L. “Mercury-chlorine-fly ash interactions in coal combustion flue gas.” Presented at the 91st Annual Meeting and Exhibition of the Air & Waste Management Association, San Diego, CA, June 1998; paper no. 98-RA79B.08.
   Google Scholar
• Galbreath, K.C.; Zygarlicke, C.J. “Mercury transformations in coal combustion flue gas.” Presented at the EERC/DOE/EPA Air Quality: Mercury, Trace Elements, and Particulate Matter Conference, Washington, DC, December 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Ghorishi, B.; Gullett, B.K. “Fixed-bed control of mercury: Role of acid gases and a comparison between carbon-based, calcium-based, and coal fly ash sorbents.” In Proceedings of the EPRI/DOE/EPA Combined Utility Air Pollutant Control Symposium, EPRI TR-108683-V3; Washington, DC, August 25-29, 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Ghorishi, S.B.; Sedman, C.B. “Combined mercury and sulfur oxides control using calcium-based sorbents,” In Proceedings of the EPRI/ DOE/EPA Combined Utility Air Pollutant Control Symposium, EPRI TR-108683-V3; Washington, DC, August 25-29, 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Granite, E.J.; Pennline, H.W.; Haddad, G.J.; Hargis, R.A., Jr. “An investigation of sorbents for mercury removal from flue gas.” In Proceedings of the 15th Annual International Pittsburgh Coal Conference, Pittsburgh, PA, September 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Granite, E.J.; Hargis, R.A., Jr.; Pennline, H.W. “Novel sorbents for mercury removal from flue gas.” Presented at the 1999 AIChE Spring National Meeting, Houston, TX, 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Hall, B.; Lindqvist, O.; Ljungstrom, E. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1990, 24, 108–111.
   Google Scholar
• Hall, B.; Schager, P.; Lindqvist, O. “Chemical reaction of mercury in combustion fuel gases,” Water, Air, Soil Pollut. 1991, 56, 3-14.
   Google Scholar
• Hand, D.H.; Crittenden, J.C.; Thacker, W.E. ASCE J. Environ. Eng. 1983, 109 (1), 82–103.
   Google Scholar
• Hargis, R.A., Jr.; Pennline, H.W. “Assessment of air toxic emissions from a pilot-scale combustion unit.” Presented at the First Joint DOE-PETC Power and Fuel Systems Contractors Conference, U.S. Department of Energy, Pittsburgh, PA, July 9-11, 1996.
   Google Scholar
• Hargis, R.A., Jr.; Pennline, H.W. “Trace element distribution and mercury speciation in a pilot-scale coal combustor burning Blacksville coal.” Presented at the 90th Annual Meeting and Exhibition of the Air & Waste Management Association, Toronto, Canada, June 1997; paper no. 97-WP72B.04.
   Google Scholar
• Hargis, R.A., Jr.; O'Dowd, W.J.; Pennline, H.W. “Mercury investigations in a pilot-scale unit.” Paper presented at the 1999 AIChE Spring National Meeting, Houston, TX, 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Hargrove, O.W., Jr.; Peterson, J.R.; Seeger, D.M.; Skarupa, R.C.; Moser, R.E. “Update of EPRI wet FGD pilot-scale mercury emissions control research.” Presented at the EPRI/DOE International Conference on Managing Hazardous and Particulate Pollutants, Toronto, Canada, August 15-17, 1995.
   Google Scholar
• Hargrove, O.W., Jr.; Carey, T.R.; Richardson, C.F.; Skarupa, R.C.; Meserole, F.B.; Rudy, R.G.; Brown, T.D. “Factors affecting control of mercury by wet FGD.” Presented at the EPRI/DOE/EPA Combined Utility Air Pollutant Control Symposium, Washington, DC, August 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Haythornthwaite, S.; Sjostrom, S.; Ebner, T.; Ruhl, J.; Slye, R.; Smith, J.; Hunt, T.; Chang, R.; Brown, T.D. “Demonstration of dry carbon-based sorbent injection for mercury control in utility ESPs and baghouses.” In Proceedings of the EPRI/DOE/EPA Combined Utility Air Pollutant Control Symposium, EPRI TR-108683-V3; Washington, DC, August 25-29, 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Haythornthwaite, S.; Hunt, T.; Fox, M.; Smith, J.; Anderson, G.; Grover, C. Investigation and Demonstration of Dry Carbon-Based Sorbent Injection for Mercury Control; Quarterly Technical Report under DOE Contract No. DE-AC22-95PC95256, October 1, 1998 to December 31, 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Haythornthwaite, S.; Smith, J.; Anderson, G.; Hunt, T.; Fox, M.; Chang, R.; Brown, T. “Pilot-scale carbon injection for mercury control at the Comanche Station.” To be presented at the 92nd Annual Meeting and Exhibition of the Air & Waste Management Association, St. Louis, MO, June 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Heidt, M.K.; Laudal, D.L.; Brown, T.D.; Nott, B.R. “Evaluation of continuous monitors for mercury measurements in pilot-scale tests.” Presented at the 91st Annual Meeting and Exhibition of the Air & Waste Management Association, San Diego, CA, June 1998; paper no. 98- WP79A.04.
   Google Scholar
• Helfritch, D.G.; Feldman, P.L.; Pass, S.J. “A circulating fluid bed fine particulate and mercury control concept.” Presented at the EPRI/DOE/ EPA Combined Utility Air Pollutant Control Symposium, Washington, DC, August 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Holmes, M.J. et al. “Control of mercury in conventional flue gas emissions control systems.” Presented at the Fourth EPRI International Conference on Managing Hazardous Air Pollutants, Washington, DC, November 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Holmes, M.J.; Farthing, G.A.; Madden, D.A. “Advanced emissions control development program.” Presented at the U.S. Department of Energy/Federal Energy Technology Center Advanced Coal-Based Power and Environmental Systems' 98 Conference, Morgantown, WV, July, 21-23, 1998.
   Google Scholar
• HSC Chemistry for Windows, version 3.0; Outokumpu Research Oy: Pori, Finland.
   Google Scholar
• Huggins, F.E.; Huffman, G.P.; Dunham, G.E.; Senior, C.L.. “XAFS examination of mercury capture on three activated carbons,” ACS Division of Fuel Chemistry Preprints, Vol. 42, No. 3/4, 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Huggins, F.E.; Yap, N.; Huffman, G.P.; Senior, C.L.. “Identification of mercury species in unburned carbon from pulverized coal combustion.” To be presented at the 92nd Annual Meeting and Exhibition of the Air & Waste Management Association, St. Louis, MO, June 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Hunt, T.; Sjostrom, S.; Bustard, J.; Brown, T.D. “Investigation and demonstration of dry carbon-based sorbent injection for mercury control.” Presented at the First Joint DOE-PETC Power and Fuel Systems Contractors Conference, U.S. Department of Energy, Pittsburgh, PA, July 9-11, 1996.
   Google Scholar
• ICARUS Process Evaluator; ICARUS Corporation: Rockville, MD.
   Google Scholar
• Jackson, B.L. “Comprehensive Assessment of Toxic Emissions from Coal-Fired Power Plants: Minnesota Power Company Boswell Energy Center—Unit 2,” Final Report Volumes I-IV, DOE Contract No. DE- AC22-93PC93255, July 1994.
   Google Scholar
• Janati, K.; Mehdi Rahimi, M.; Savichky, W.; Chu, P.; Laudal, D.; Brown, T. “Comparison of Alternative Measurement Techniques for Total, Elemental, and Oxidized Species of Mercury in Coal-Fired Boiler Flue Gas Streams,” Presented at the Air & Waste Management Association's 91st Annual Meeting & Exhibition, Paper No. 98-WP79A.02 (A417), San Diego, California, June 14-18, 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Korpiel, J.A.; Vidic, R.D. “Effect of sulfur impregnation method on activated carbon uptake of gas-phase mercury,” Environ. Sci. Technol. 1997, 31 (8), 2319–2326.
   Google Scholar
• Krishnan, S.V.; Gullett, B.K.; Jozewicz, W. “Sorption of elemental mercury by activated carbon,” Environ. Sci. Technol. 1994, 28, 1506–1512.
   Google Scholar
• Kurz, M.D.; Laudal, D.L. “Mercury Formation and Fate—Volume 2: Mercury Speciation Sampling at Cooperative and United Power Association's Coal Creek Station,” DOE Report under Contract DE- FC21-93MC30098, April 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Laudal, D.L. et al. “Evaluation of mercury speciation by EPA (draft) Method 29.” In Proceedings of the 88th Annual Meeting and Exhibition of the Air & Waste Management Association, Air & Waste Management Association: Pittsburgh, PA, 1995; paper no. 95-MP7.03.
   Google Scholar
• Laudal, D.L.; Heidt, M.K.; Brown, T.D.; Nott, B.R. “Mercury specia- tion: A comparison between Method 29 and other sampling methods.” Presented at the 89th Annual Meeting and Exhibition of the Air & Waste Management Association, Nashville, TN, June 1996; paper no. 96-W64A.04.
   Google Scholar
• Laudal, D.L.; Galbreath, K.C.; Heidt, M.K.; Brown, T.D.; Nott, B.R.; Jones, S.K. A State-of-the-Art Review of Flue Gas Mercury Speciation Methods; EPRI TR-107080; Electric Power Research Institute/U.S. Department of Energy Final Report, November 1996.
   Google Scholar
• Laudal, D.L.; Heidt, M.K.; Galbreath, K.C.; Nott, B.R.; Brown, T.B.; Roberson, R.L. “A comprehensive evaluation of flue gas mercury spe-ciation methods.” Presented at the U.S. Department of Energy Advanced Coal-Based Power and Environmental '97 Conference, Pittsburgh, PA, July 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Laudal, D.L.; Heidt, M.K.; Nott, B.R.; Brown T.D. “Recommended methods for mercury speciation measurements in coal combustion systems.” Presented at the Fourth EPRI International Conference on Managing Hazardous Air Pollutants, Washington, DC, November 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Laudal, D.L.; Heidt, M.K.; Nott, B.R.; Brown T.D. Evaluation of Flue Gas Mercury Speciation Methods; EPRI TR-108988; Electric Power Research Institute/U.S. Department of Energy Final Report, December 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Laudal, D.L. Field Validation of the Ontario Hydro Mercury Specia-tion Sampling Method at Site E-29; Electric Power Research Institute/ U.S. Department of Energy Final Report, January 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Laudal, D.L.; Kurz, M.D. “Mercury Formation and Fate—Volume 1: Mercury Speciation Sampling at Minnkota Power Cooperative's Milton R. Young Station,” DOE Report under Contract DE-FC21-93MC30098, January 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Laudal, D.L.; Brown, T.D.; Chu, P. “Testing of a mercury continuous emission monitor at three coal-fired electric utilities.” To be presented at the 92nd Annual Meeting and Exhibition of the Air & Waste Management Association, St. Louis, MO, June 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Lee, T.G.; Bismas, P. “Kinetics of heterogeneous mercury reactions with sorbent particles: In situ capture methodologies.” To be presented at the 92nd Annual Meeting and Exhibition of the Air & Waste Management Association, St. Louis, MO, June 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Liu, W.; Korpiel, J.A.; Vidic, R.D. “Effect of impregnation temperature on physical characteristics and adsorption properties of sulfur impregnated carbons for vapor-phase mercury.” Presented at the 90th Annual Meeting and Exhibition of the Air & Waste Management Association, Toronto, Canada, June 1997; paper no. 97-WA72A.02.
   Google Scholar
• Liu, W.; Vidic, R.D.; Brown, T.D. “Optimization of sulfur impregnation protocol for fixed-bed application of activated carbon-based sor-bents for gas-phase mercury removal.” Environ. Sci. Technol. 1998, 32 (4), 531–538.
   Google Scholar
• Liu, W.; Vidic, R.D.; Brown, T.D. “Economical production of sulfur impregnated carbons for permanent sequestration of mercury vapors,” Environ. Sci. Technol., submitted for publication, December 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Liu, W.; Vidic, R.D.; Brown, T.D. “Impact of flue gas conditions on mercury removal by sulfur-impregated activated carbons,” submitted for publication, Environ. Sci. and Tech., March 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Livengood, C.D.; Huang, H.S.; Wu, J.M. In Proceedings of the 87th Annual Meeting and Exhibition of the Air & Waste Management Association, Air & Waste Management Association: Pittsburgh, PA, 1994.
   Google Scholar
• McManus, et. al. “Comparative evaluation of ATS Method 1, the Ontario-Hydro Method and EPA Method 29 for capture and analysis of mercury species.” Presented at the 90th Annual Meeting and Exhibition of the Air & Waste Management Association, Toronto, Canada, June 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Meij, R. “Trace Element Behavior in Coal-Fired Power Plants,” Fuel Processing Technol. 1994, 39, 199-217.
   Google Scholar
• Michaud, D. Data provided in an e-mail from David Michaud of Wisconsin Electric Power Company (WEPCO) to Thomas D. Brown of the Advanced Crosscutting Technology Division, U.S. Department of Energy/Federal Energy Technology Center, January 7, 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Miller, R.L.; Harrison, W.A.; Prater, D.B.; Chang, R. “Alabama Power Company E.C. Gaston 272 MW Electric Steam Plant-Unit No.3 Enhanced COHPAC Installation,” Presented at the EPRI/DOE/EPA Combined Utility Air Pollutant Control Symposium, Washington D.C., August 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Miller, S.J.; Laudal, D.L.; Chang, R.; Bergman, P.D. “Laboratory-scale investigation of sorbents for mercury control.” Presented at the 87th Annual Meeting and Exhibition of the Air & Waste Management Association, Cincinnati, OH, June 1994.
   Google Scholar
• Miller, S.J.; Laudal, D.L.; Dunham, G.E.; Chang, R.; Bergman, P.D., “Pilot-scale investigation of mercury control in baghouses,” In Proceedings of the EPRI/DOE International Conference on Managing Hazardous and Particulate Pollutants, Toronto, Canada, August 15-17, 1995.
   Google Scholar
• Miller, S.J.; Schelkoph, G.L.; Dunham, G.E.; Walker, K.; Krigmont, H. “Advanced Hybrid Particulate Collector, A New Concept for Air Toxics and Fine Particulate Control,” Presented at the EPRI-DOE-EPA Combined Utility Air Pollutant Control Symposium, Washington D.C., August 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Miller, S.J.; Olson, E.S.; Dunham, G.E.; Sharma, R.K. “Preparation methods and test protocol for mercury sorbents.” Presented at the 91st Annual Meeting and Exhibition of the Air & Waste Management Association, San Diego, CA, June 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Miller, S.J.; Dunham, G.E.; Olson, E.S.; Brown, T.D. “Mercury sorbent development in coal-fired boilers.” In Proceedings of the Conference on Air Quality: Mercury, Trace Elements, and Particulate Matter, McLean, VA, December 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Myshlin, A.E.; Konyaeva, V.S. “Complex formation of Hg(II) with Tris(Hydroxymethyl)Aminomethane,” Russ. J. Gen. Chem. 1994, 64, 1722-1726.
   Google Scholar
• Owens, T.M.; Wu, C.Y.; Biswas, P. “An Equilibrium Analysis for Reaction of Metal Compounds with Sorbents In High Temperature Systems,” Chemical Engr. Comm. 1995, 133, 31–52.
   Google Scholar
• Owens, T.M.; Biswas, P. “Vapor Phase Sorbent Precursors for Toxic Metal Emissions Control from Combustors,” Ind. Eng. Chem. Research 1996, 35, 792–798.
   Google Scholar
• Pavlish, J.; Benson, S. “Summary of key air toxic results from the Center for Air Toxic Metals (CATM).” Presented at the EPRI/DOE/EPA Combined Utility Air Pollutant Control Symposium, Washington, DC, August 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Pierce, W.C.; Noyes W.A., Jr. “A further study of the reaction between nitrogen dioxide and liquid mercury,” J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1928, 50, 2179–2187.
   Google Scholar
• Porritt, R.E.; Swaine, D.J. Australian Institute of Fuels Conference, 1976; 18.1–18.9.
   Google Scholar
• Prestbo, E.M.; Bloom, N.S. “Mercury Speciation Adsorption (MESA) Method for combustion flue gas: Methodology, artifacts, intercomparison, and atmospheric Implications,” Water, Air, Soil Pollut. 1995, 80, 145-158.
   Google Scholar
• Public Service Company of Colorado/ADA Technologies, Inc. Investigation and Demonstration of Dry Carbon-Based Injection for Mercury Control; Final Report under Phase I DOE/FETC Mega PRDA Program (period of performance September 1995 to July 1997); September 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Physical Sciences, Inc.; et al. Senior, C.L.; Bool, L E.; Morency, J.; Huggins, F.; Huffman, G.P.; Shah, N.; Wendt, J.O.L.; Shadman, F.; Peterson, T.; Seames, W.; Wu, B.; Sarofim, A.F.; Olmez, I.; Zeng, T.; Crowley, S.; Kolker, A.; Palmer, C.A.; Finkelman, R.; Helble, J.J.; Wornat, M.J. Toxic Substances from Coal Combustion - A Comprehensive Assessment; Contract No. DE-AC22-95PC95101; Final Report under DOE/FETC Mega PRDA Program (period of performance September 1995 to July 1997) September 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Puri, B.R.; Hazra, R.S. “Carbon-sulfur surface complexes on charcoal,” Carbon 1971, 9, 123–134.
   Google Scholar
• Radian International LLC et al. Enhanced Control of Mercury and Other Haps by Innovative Modifications to Wet FGD Process; Final Report under Phase I DOE/FETC Mega PRDA Program (period of performance September 1995 to July 1997) September 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Redinger, K.E.; Evans, A.; Bailey, R.; Nolan, P. “Mercury emissions control in FGD systems.” Presented at the EPRI/DOE/EPA Combined Air Pollutant Control Symposium, Washington DC, August 25-29, 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Roberts, D.L.; Stewart, R.M.; Broderick, T.E. “Capturing and recycling part per billion levels of mercury found in flue gases.” In Proceedings of the EPRI/DOE/EPA Combined Utility Air Pollutant Control Symposium, EPRI TR-108683-V3; Washington, DC, August 25-29, 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Roberts, D.L.; Albiston, J.; Broderick, T.E.; Greenwell, C.; Stewart, R.M. Novel Process for Removal and Recovery of Vapor Phase Mercury; Phase I Final Report under Contract No. DE-AC22-95PC95257 to U.S. Department of Energy, Federal Energy Technology Center, September 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Robl, T.L.; McCormick, C.J. “We are running out of fly ash: The nature of regional supply problems.” In Proceedings of the DOE/FETC Third Annual Conference on Unburned Carbon on Utility Fly Ash, Pittsburgh, PA, May 13-14, 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Rostam-Abadi, M. et al. “Novel vapor phase mercury sorbents.” Presented at the EPRI/DOE/EPA Combined Utility Air Pollutant Control Symposium, Washington, DC, August 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Sarofim, A.F.; Senior, C.L.; Helble, J.J. “Emissions of mercury, trace elements, and fine particles from stationary combustion sources.” In Proceedings of the Conference on Air Quality: Mercury, Trace Elements, and Particulate Matter, McLean, VA, December 1-4, 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Senior, C.L. et al. “ A fundamental study of mercury partitioning in coal-fired power plant flue gas.” Presented at the 90th Annual Meeting and Exhibition of the Air & Waste Management Association, Toronto, Canada, June 1997; paper no. 97-WA72B.08.
   Google Scholar
• Senior, C.L.; Bool, L.E,; Morency, J.; Huggins, F.; Huffman, G.P.; Shah, N.; Wendt, J.O.L.; Shadman, F.; Peterson, T.; Seames, W.; Wu, B.; Sarofim, A.F.; Olmez, I.; Zeng, T.; Crowley, S.; Kolker, A.; Palmer, C.A.; Finkelman, R.; Helble, J.J.; Wornat, M.J. Toxic Substances from Coal Combustion - A Comprehensive Assessment; Final Report under DOE/ FETC Mega PRDA Program (period of performance September 1995 to July 1997) Contract No. DE-AC22-95PC95101 - September, 1997.
   Google Scholar
• 118.Senior, C.L.; Morency, J.R.; Huffman, G.P.; Huggins, F.E.; Shah, N.; Peterson, T.; Shadman, F.; Wu, B. “Prediction of mercury speciation in coal-fired power plant flue gas: A fundamental study.” Presented at the Fourth EPRI International Conference on Managing Hazardous Air Pollutants, Washington, DC, November 12-14, 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Senior, C.L.; Morency, J.R.; Huffman, G.P.; Huggins, F.E.; Shah, N.; Peterson, T.; Shadman, F.; Wu, B. “Interaction between vapor-phase mercury and coal fly ash under simulated utility power plant flue gas conditions.” Presented at the 91st Annual Meeting and Exhibition of the Air & Waste Management Association, San Diego, CA, June 1998; paper no. 98-RA79B.04.
   Google Scholar
• Senior, C.L.; Sarofim, A.F.; Zeng, T.; Helble, J.J.; Mamani-Paco, R. “Gas-phase transformations of mercury in coal-fired power plants,” Fuel Process. Technol., submitted for publication, 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Sjostrom, S.; Roberts, R.L.; Anderson, G.; Sagon, F.; Smith, J.; “Development and field testing of a continuous real-time speciating mercury analyzer.” Presented at the 90th Annual Meeting and Exhibition of the Air & Waste Management Association, Toronto, Canada, June 1997-a; paper no. 97-WA72A.06.
   Google Scholar
• Sjostrum, S. et al. “Demonstration of dry carbon-based sorbent injection for mercury control in utility ESPs and baghouses.” Presented at the 90th Annual Meeting and Exhibition of the Air & Waste Management Association, Toronto, Canada, June 1997-b; paper no. 97- WA72A.07.
   Google Scholar
• Sliger, R.N.; Going, D.J.; Kramlich, J.C. “Kinetic Investigation of the High-Temperature Oxidation of Mercury by Chlorine Species,” Paper 98F-18, Proceedings of Western States Section/The Combustion Institute Fall 1998 Meeting, Seattle, WA, 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Smit, F.J.; Moro, N.; Shields, G.L.; Jha, M.C.; Feeley, T.J. “Reduction of toxic trace elements in coal by advanced coal cleaning.” In Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual International Pittsburgh Coal Conference, Vol 2; Pittsburgh, PA, 1996; pp 879–884.
   Google Scholar
• Stacy, W.O.; Vastola, F.J.; Walker, P.L., Jr. “Interaction of sulfur dioxide with activated carbon,” Carbon 1968, 6, 917–923.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, D.N. Prepared from the FETC database on coal-fired boilers developed from the “Energy Information Agency,” “U.S. EPA,” and “Utility Data Institute” databases for 1996, prepared by Dennis Smith, FETC, December 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, D.N.; Brown, T.D. Prepared for a presentation at the 15th Annual International Pittsburgh Coal Conference, Pittsburgh, PA, September 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Teng, H.; Suuberg, E.M.; Calo, J.M. “Studies of the reduction of nitric oxide by carbon: The no-carbon gasification reaction,” Energy Fuels 1992, 6, 398–406.
   Google Scholar
• Toole-O'Neil, B.; Tewalt, S.J.; Finkleman, R.B.; Akers, D.J. “Mercury concentration in coal - Unraveling the puzzle,” Fuel 1999, 78, 47–74.
   Google Scholar
• (a) Traegner, U.K.; Suidian, M.T. ASCE J. Environ. Eng. 1989, 115 (1), 109–128.
   Google Scholar
• (b) Traegner, U.K.; Suidian, M.T. Water Res. 1989, 23 (3), 267–273.
   Google Scholar
• Turchi, C.S.; Albiston, J.; Broderick, T.E.; Stewart, R.M. “Removal of mercury from coal-combustion flue gas using regenerable sorbents.” To be presented at the 92nd Annual Meeting and Exhibition of the Air & Waste Management Association, St. Louis, MO, June 1999.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. DOE. A Comprehensive Assessment of Toxic Emissions for Coal-Fired Power Plants: Phase I Results from The U.S. Department of Energy Study; Report No. DE-FC21-93MC30097; Report prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy by the University of North Dakota Energy & Environmental Research Center; (a study performed from May to December 1993) September 1996.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. DOE. “Formation, Distribution, Impact, and Fate of Sulfur Tri-oxide in Utility Flue Gas Streams Conference,” Conference Proceedings of U.S. DOE, Pittsburgh, PA, March 30-31, 1998.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. DOE. “Duct Injection for SO2 Control Design Handbook,” Volumes 1 and 2, October 1993.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. DOE. “Duct Injection Survey Results,” August 1988.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. DOE. “Coolside and LIMB: Sorbent Injection Demonstrates Near-ing Completion,” in Clean Coal Technology, Topical Report No. 2, U.S. DOE, September 1990.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. EPA. Draft Technical Support Document for HWC MACT Standards, Vol. V: Main Report, Engineering Costs; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; February 1996; Appendix E.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. EPA. Mercury Study Report to Congress; EPA-452/R-97-003; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards and Office of Research and Development, U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington, DC, December 1997. Available on the World Wide Web at <Error! Hyperlink reference not valid.>.
   Google Scholar
• (a) U.S. EPA. A Study of Hazardous Air Pollutant Emissions from Electric Utility Steam Generating Units -- Final Report to Congress - Volume 1; EPA-453/R-98-004a; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington, DC, February 1998. Available on the World Wide Web at <Error! Hyperlink reference not valid.>.
   Google Scholar
• (b) U.S. EPA. A Study of Hazardous Air Pollutant Emissions from Electric Utility Steam Generating Units -- Final Report to Congress - Volume 2; EPA 453/R-98-004b, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington, DC, February 1998; Appendices A-I. Available on the World Wide Web at <Error! Hyperlink reference not valid.>.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency White Paper, 1998. Available on the World Wide Web at http://www.epa.gov/merwhite.html.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. EPA Method 301 - Field Validation of Pollutant Measurement Methods from Various Waste Media. Code of Federal Regulations, Parts 6080, Title 40, 1993; Fed. Regist. July 1993, Part 63, Appendix A, 324–331.
   Google Scholar
• Utility Data Institute. Power Plant Statistics; Utility Data Institute: October 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Vidic, R.D. “Combined theoretical and experimental investigation of mechanisms and kinetics of vapor-phase mercury uptake by carbonaceous surfaces”; abstract from a proposal submitted to the U.S. Department of Energy/Federal Energy Technology Center; Contract awarded in response to Program Solicitation No. DE-PS26-98FT98200, November 26, 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Vidic, R.D.; McLaughlin, J.D. “Uptake of of elemental mercury by activated carbons,” J. Air & Waste Manage. Assoc. 1996, 46.
   Google Scholar
• Wang, J.; Xiao, Z.; Lindqvist, O. “Online Measurements of Mercury in Simulated Flue Gas,” Water, Air, and Soil Pollut. 1995, 80, 12171226.
   Google Scholar
• Waugh, E.G.; Jensen, B.K.; Lapatnick, L.N.; Gibbons, F.X.; Sjostrom, S.; Ruhl, J.; Slye, R.; Chang, R. “Mercury control in utility ESPs and baghouses through dry carbon-based sorbent injection pilot-scale demonstration,” In Proceedings of the EPRI/DOE/EPA Combined Utility Air Pollutant Control Symposium, EPRI TR-108683-V3; Washington, DC, August 25-29, 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Waugh, E.G., “Mercury and acid gas control in utility baghouses through sorbent injection pilot-scale demonstration.” Presented at the Power-Gen International '97, Dallas, TX, December 9-11, 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Wu, C-Y.; Arar, E.; Biswas, P. Presented at the 89th Annual Meeting and Exhibition of the Air & Waste Management Association, Nashville, TN, June 1996; paper no. 96-MP2.02.
   Google Scholar
• Wu, C-Y; Lee, T-G; Arar, E.; Bismas, P. “Novel in situ generated sor-bent methodology and UV irradiation for mercury capture in combustion environments.” Presented at the EPRI/DOE/EPA Combined Utility Air Pollutant Control Symposium, Washington, DC, August 25-29, 1997.
   Google Scholar