Understanding the Developmental Roots of Gender Gaps in Politics

References

• AAUW. (2019). The STEM Gap: Women and Girls in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math. https://www.aauw.org/resources/research/the-stem-gap/#:∼:text=Women%20make%20up%20only%2028,like%20computer%20science%20and%20engineering.
   Google Scholar
• Alexander, D., & Andersen, K. (1993). Gender as a factor in the attribution of leadership traits. Political Research Quarterly, 46(3), 527–545. doi:10.1177/106591299304600305
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alper, J. (1993). The pipeline is leaking women all the way along. Science, 260(5106), 409–411. doi:10.1126/science.260.5106.409
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Students Government Association. (2018). SG database. Retrieved from https://asgahome.com/sg-database/.
   Google Scholar
• Anastasopoulos, L. (2016). Estimating the gender penalty in House of Representative elections using a regression discontinuity design. Electoral Studies, 43, 150–157. doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2016.04.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andre, T., Whigham, M., Hendrickson, A., & Chambers, S. (1999). Competency beliefs, positive affect, and gender stereotypes of elementary students and their parents about science versus other school subjects. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 36(6), 719–747. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2736(199908)36:6<719::AID-TEA8>3.0.CO;2-R
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ansolabehere, S., & Hersh, E. (2013). Gender, race, age and voting: A research note. Politics and Governance, 1(2), 132–137. doi:10.17645/pag.v1i2.97
   Google Scholar
• Anzia, S. F., & Berry, C. R. (2011). The Jackie (and Jill) Robinson effect: Why do congresswomen outperform congressmen? American Journal of Political Science, 55(3), 478–493. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2011.00512.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Archer, L., DeWitt, J., Osborne, J., Dillon, J., Willis, B., & Wong, B. (2013). “Not girly, not sexy, not glamorous”: Primary school girls’ and parents’ constructions of science aspirations. Pedagogy, Culture and Society, 21(1), 171–194. doi:10.1080/14681366.2012.748676
   Google Scholar
• Astuto, J., & Ruck, M. D. (2010). Early Childhood as a Foundation for Civic Engagement. In L. R. Sherrod, J. Torney-Purta, & C. A. Flanagan (Eds.), Handbook of research on civic engagement in youth (pp. 249–275). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Barnes, T. D., & O'Brien, D. Z. (2018). Defending the realm: The appointment of female defense ministers worldwide. American Journal of Political Science, 62(2), 355–368. doi:10.1111/ajps.12337
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beaman, L., Chattopadhyay, R., Duflo, E., Pande, R., & Topalova, P. (2009). Powerful women: Does exposure reduce bias? Quarterly Journal of Economics, 124(4), 1497–1540. doi:10.1162/qjec.2009.124.4.1497
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beaman, L., Duflo, E., Pande, R., & Topalova, P. (2012). Female leadership raises aspirations and educational attainment for girls: A policy experiment in India. Science, 335(6068), 582–586. doi:10.1126/science.1212382
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Begeny, C. T., Ryan, M. K., Moss-Racusin, C. A., & Ravetz, G. (2020). In some professions, women have become well represented, yet gender bias persists-Perpetuated by those who think it is not happening. Science Advances, 6(26), eaba7814. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aba7814
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beilock, S. L., Gunderson, E. A., Ramirez, G., & Levine, S. C. (2010). Female teachers' math anxiety affects girls' math achievement. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(5), 1860–1863. doi:10.1073/pnas.0910967107
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernick, E. M., & Heidbreder, B. (2018). Disproportionately overrepresented: Women in local elected offices. State and Local Government Review, 50(3), 165–176. doi:10.1177/0160323x18813641
   Google Scholar
• Betz, D. E., & Sekaquaptewa, D. (2012). My fair physicist? Feminine math and science role models demotivate young girls. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 3(6), 738–746. doi:10.1177/1948550612440735
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhanot, R., & Jovanovic, J. (2005). Do parents’ academic gender stereotypes influence whether they intrude on their children’s homework? Sex Roles, 52(9–10), 597–607. doi:10.1007/s11199-005-3728-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bialik, K. (2019). For the fifth time in a row, the new Congress is the most racially and ethnically diverse ever. Retrieved from https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/02/08/for-the-fifth-time-in-a-row-the-new-congress-is-the-most-racially-and-ethnically-diverse-ever/.
   Google Scholar
• Bian, L., Leslie, S.-J., & Cimpian, A. (2017). Gender stereotypes about intellectual ability emerge early and influence children's interests. Science, 355(6323), 389–391. doi:10.1126/science.aah6524
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bian, L., Leslie, S.-J., & Cimpian, A. (2018). Evidence of bias against girls and women in contexts that emphasize intellectual ability. American Psychologist, 73(9), 1139–1153. doi:10.1037/amp0000427
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bigler, R. S., Arthur, A. E., Hughes, J. M., & Patterson, M. M. (2008). The politics of race and gender: Children’s perceptions of discrimination and the U.S. presidency. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 8(1), 83–112. doi:10.1111/j.1530-2415.2008.00161.x
   Google Scholar
• Blažev, M., Karabegović, M., Burušić, J., & Selimbegović, L. (2017). Predicting gender-STEM stereotyped beliefs among boys and girls from prior school achievement and interest in STEM school subjects. Social Psychology of Education, 20(4), 831–847. doi:10.1007/s11218-017-9397-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bleeker, M. M., & Jacobs, J. E. (2004). Achievement in math and science: Do mothers’ beliefs matter 12 years later? Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(1), 97–109. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.96.1.97
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bligh, M. C., & Kohles, J. C. (2008). Negotiating gender role expectations: Rhetorical leadership and women in the US Senate. Leadership, 4(4), 381–402. doi:10.1177/1742715008095187
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Block, K., Gonzalez, A. M., Schmader, T., & Baron, A. S. (2018). Early gender differences in core values predict anticipated family versus career orientation. Psychological Science, 29(9), 1540–1547. doi:10.1177/0956797618776942
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Born, A., Ranehill, E., & Sandberg, A. (2020). Gender and willingness to lead – Does the gender composition of teams matter? Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3207198
   Google Scholar
• Bos, A. L. (2011). Out of control: Delegates’ information sources and perceptions of female candidates. Political Communication, 28(1), 87–109. doi:10.1080/10584609.2010.540306
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bos, A. L., Schneider, M. C., & Utz, B. L. (2018). Navigating the political labyrinth: Gender stereotypes and prejudice in U.S. elections. In C. B. Travis, J. W. White, A. Rutherford, W. S. Williams, S. L. Cook, & K. F. Wyche (Eds.), APA handbook of the psychology of women: Perspectives on women’s private and public lives (Vol. 2, pp. 367–384). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
   Google Scholar
• Boston, J. S., & Cimpian, A. (2018). How do we encourage gifted girls to pursue and succeed in science and engineering. Gifted Child Today, 41(4), 196–138. doi:10.1177/1076217518786955
   Google Scholar
• Brescoll, V. L. (2011). Who takes the floor and why: Gender, power, and volubility in organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 56(4), 622–641. doi:10.1177/0001839212439994
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brotman, J. S., & Moore, F. M. (2008). Girls and science: A review of four themes in the science education literature. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 45(9), 971–1002. doi:10.1002/tea.20241
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, C. S., & Leaper, C. (2010). Latina and European American girls' experiences with academic sexism and their self-concepts in mathematics and science during adolescence. Sex Roles, 63(11–12), 860–870. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9856-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, N. E. (2014). Political participation of women of color: An intersectional analysis. Journal of Women, Politics & Policy, 35(4), 315–348. doi:10.1080/1554477X.2014.955406
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burns, N., Verba, S., & Lehman, K. (2001). The private roots of public action: Gender, equality, and political participation. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Caldwell, E. F., & Wilbraham, S. J. (2018). Hairdressing in space: Depiction of gender in science books for children. Journal of Science & Popular Culture, 1(2), 101–118. doi:10.1386/jspc.1.2.101_1
   Google Scholar
• Campbell, D. E., & Wolbrecht, C. (2006). See Jane run: Women politicians as role models for adolescents. The Journal of Politics, 68(2), 233–247. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2508.2006.00402.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carli, L. L., Alawa, L., Lee, Y. A., Zhao, B., & Kim, E. (2016). Stereotypes about gender and science: Women ≠ Scientists. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(2), 244–260. doi:10.1177/0361684315622645
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carnes, N. (2018). The cash ceiling: Why only the rich run for office—and what we can do about it. Princeton; Oxford: Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/doi:10.2307/j.ctv39x4w6.
   Google Scholar
• Carroll, S. J., & Sanbonmatsu, K. (2013). More women can run: Gender and pathways to the state legislature. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ceci, S. J. (2018). Women in academic science: Experimental findings from hiring studies. Educational Psychologist, 53(1), 22–41. doi:10.1080/00461520.2017.1396462
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ceci, S. J., Ginther, D. K., Kahn, S., & Williams, W. M. (2014). Women in academic science: A changing landscape. Psychological Science in the Public Interest: A Journal of the American Psychological Society, 15(3), 75–141. doi:10.1177/1529100614541236
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ceci, S. J., & Williams, W. M. (2010). Sex differences in math-intensive fields. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(5), 275–279. doi:10.1177/0963721410383241
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ceci, S. J., Williams, W. M., & Barnett, S. M. (2009). Women's underrepresentation in science: Sociocultural and biological considerations. Psychological Bulletin, 135(2), 218–261. doi:10.1037/a0014412
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Celis, K., Erzeel, S., & Mügge, L. (2015). Intersectional puzzles: Understanding inclusion and equality in political recruitment. Politics & Gender, 11(04), 765–770. doi:10.1017/S1743923X15000501
   Google Scholar
• Chambers, D. W. (1983). Stereotypic images of the scientist: The draw-a-scientist test. Science Education, 67(2), 255–265. doi:10.1002/sce.3730670213
   Google Scholar
• Chang, A., Sandhofer, C. M., & Brown, C. S. (2011). Gender biases in early number exposure to preschool-aged children. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 30(4), 440–450. doi:10.1177/0261927X11416207
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charles, K. K., Guryan, J., & Pan, J. (2018). The effects of sexism on American women: The role of norms vs. discrimination. Becker Friedman Institute for Economics, University of Chicago. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3233788
   Google Scholar
• Chen, J., & Houser, D. (2019). When are women willing to lead? The effect of team gender composition and gendered tasks. The Leadership Quarterly, 30(6), 101340. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2019.101340
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheryan, S., Meltzoff, A. N., & Kim, S. (2011). Classrooms matter: The design of virtual classrooms influences gender disparities in computer science classes. Computers & Education, 57(2), 1825–1835. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2011.02.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheryan, S., & Plaut, V. C. (2010). Explaining underrepresentation: A theory of precluded interest. Sex Roles, 63(7–8), 475–488. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9835-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheryan, S., Plaut, V. C., Davies, P. G., & Steele, C. M. (2009). Ambient belonging: How stereotypical cues impact gender participation in computer science. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97(6), 1045–1060. doi:10.1037/a0016239
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheryan, S., Siy, J. O., Vichayapai, M., Drury, B. J., & Kim, S. (2011). Do female and male role models who embody STEM stereotypes hinder women’s anticipated success in STEM? Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2(6), 656–664. doi:10.1177/1948550611405218
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheryan, S., Ziegler, S. A., Montoya, A., & Jiang, L. (2017). Why are some STEM fields more gender balanced than others? Psychological Bulletin, 143(1), 1–35. doi:10.1037/bul0000052
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheryan, S., Ziegler, S. A., Plaut, V. C., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2014). Designing classrooms to maximize student achievement. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1(1), 4–12. doi:10.1177/2372732214548677
   Google Scholar
• Childs, S., & Hughes, M. (2018). “Which men?” How an intersectional perspective on men and masculinities helps explain women’s political underrepresentation. Politics & Gender, 14(2), 282–287. doi:10.1017/S1743923X1800017X
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cimpian, J. R., Kim, T. H., & McDermott, Z. T. (2020). Understanding persistent gender gaps in STEM. Science, 368(6497), 1317–1319. doi:10.1126/science.aba7377
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cimpian, J. R., Lubienski, S. T., Timmer, J. D., Makowski, M. B., & Miller, E. K. (2016). Have gender gaps in math closed? Achievement, teacher perceptions, and learning behaviors across two ECLS-K cohorts. AERA Open, 2(4), 1–19. doi:10.1177/2332858416673617
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clayton, A. (2018). Do gender quotas really reduce bias? Evidence from a policy experiment in Southern Africa. Journal of Experimental Political Science, 5(3), 182–194. doi:10.1017/XPS.2018.8
   Google Scholar
• Cole, E. R., & Stewart, A. J. (1996). Meanings of political participation among Black and White women: Political identity and social responsibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(1), 130–140. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.71.1.130
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Copur-Gencturk, Y., Cimpian, J. R., Lubienski, S. T., & Thacker, I. (2020). Teachers’ Bias Against the Mathematical Ability of Female, Black, and Hispanic Students. Educational Researcher, 49(1), 30–43. doi:10.3102/0013189X19890577
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cornell Roper Center for Public Opinion Research. (2016). Madame President: Changing attitudes about a women president. Retrieved from https://ropercenter.cornell.edu/blog/madame-president-changing-attitudes-about-woman-president-blog.
   Google Scholar
• Correll, S. J. (2001). Gender and the career choice process: The role of biased self-assessments. American Journal of Sociology, 106(6), 1691–1730. doi:10.1086/321299
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coyle, E. F., & Liben, L. S. (2020). Gendered packaging of a STEM toy influences children’s play, mechanical learning, and mothers’ play guidance. Child Development, 91(1), 43–62. doi:10.1111/cdev.13139
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crowder-Meyer, M. (2020). Baker, bus driver, babysitter, candidate? Revealing the gendered development of political ambition among ordinary Americans. Political Behavior, 42(2), 359–384. doi:10.1007/s11109-018-9498-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crowley, K., Callanan, M., Tenenbaum, H. R., & Allen, E. (2001). Parents explain more often to boys than to girls during shared scientific thinking. Psychological Science, 12(3), 258–261. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00347
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cvencek, D., Meltzoff, A. N., & Greenwald, A. G. (2011). Math-gender stereotypes in elementary school children. Child Development, 82(3), 766–779. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01529.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cvencek, D., Meltzoff, A. N., & Kapur, M. (2014). Cognitive consistency and math-gender stereotypes in Singaporean children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 117, 73–91. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2013.07.018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dasgupta, N. (2011). Ingroup experts and peers as social vaccines who inoculate the self-concept: The stereotype inoculation model. Psychological Inquiry, 22(4), 231–246. doi:10.1080/1047840X.2011.607313
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dasgupta, N., & Asgari, S. (2004). Seeing is believing: Exposure to counterstereotypic women leaders and its effect on the malleability of automatic gender stereotyping. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40(5), 642–658. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2004.02.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dasgupta, N., & Stout, J. G. (2014). Girls and women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics: STEMing the tide and broadening participation in STEM careers. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1(1), 21–29. doi:10.1177/2372732214549471
   Google Scholar
• del Río, M. F., & Strasser, K. (2013). Preschool children’s beliefs about gender differences in academic skills. Sex Roles, 68(3–4), 231–238. doi:10.1007/s11199-012-0195-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• del Río, M. F., Strasser, K., Cvencek, D., Susperreguy, M. I., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2019). Chilean kindergarten children's beliefs about mathematics: Family matters. Developmental Psychology, 55(4), 687–702. doi:10.1037/dev0000658
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diekman, A. B., & Steinberg, M. (2013). Navigating social roles in pursuit of important goals: A communal goal congruity account of STEM pursuits. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(7), 487–501. doi:10.1111/spc3.12042
   Google Scholar
• Diekman, A. B., Brown, E. R., Johnston, A. M., & Clark, E. K. (2010). Seeking congruity between goals and roles: A new look at why women opt out of science, technology, engineering and mathematical careers. Psychological Science, 21(8), 1051–1057. doi:10.1177/0956797610377342
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diekman, A. B., Steinberg, M., Brown, E. R., Belanger, A. L., & Clark, E. K. (2017). A goal congruity model of role entry, engagement, and exit: understanding communal goal processes in STEM gender gaps. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 21(2), 142–175. doi:10.1177/1088868316642141
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diekman, A. B., Weisgram, E. S., & Belanger, A. L. (2015). New routes to recruiting and retaining women in STEM: Policy implications of a communal goal congruity perspective. Social Issues and Policy Review, 9(1), 52–88. doi:10.1111/sipr.12010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diemer, M. A., & Li, C.-H. (2011). Critical consciousness development and political participation among marginalized youth. Child Development, 82(6), 1815–1833. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01650.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ditonto, T. M. (2017). A high bar or a double standard? Gender, competence, and information in political campaigns. Political Behavior, 39(2), 301–325. doi:10.1007/s11109-016-9357-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ditonto, T. M., Hamilton, A. J., & Redlawsk, D. P. (2014). Gender stereotypes, information search, and voting behavior in political campaigns. Political Behavior, 36(2), 335–358. doi:10.1007/s11109-013-9232-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dittmar, K., Sanbonmatsu, K., Carroll, S. J., Walsh, D., & Wineinger, C. (2017). Representation matters: Women in the U.S. Congress. New Brunswick, NJ: Center for American Women in Politics.
   Google Scholar
• Dolan, K. (2014). Gender stereotypes, candidate evaluations, and voting for women candidates: What really matters? Political Research Quarterly, 67(1), 96–107. doi:10.1177/1065912913487949
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dolan, K., & Lynch, T. (2016). The impact of gender stereotypes on voting for women candidates by level and type of office. Politics & Gender, 12(03), 573–595. doi:10.1017/S1743923X16000246
   Google Scholar
• Eagly, A. H., Gartzia, L., & Carli, L. L. (2014). Female advantage: Revisited. In S. Kumra, R. Simpson, & R. J. Burke (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of gender in organizations (pp. 153–174). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Eagly, A. H., & Heilman, M. E. (2016). Gender and leadership: Introduction to the special issue. The Leadership Quarterly, 27(3), 349–353. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2016.04.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109(3), 573–598. doi:10.1037//0033-295X.109.3.573
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eagly, A. H., & Mladinic, A. (1994). Are people prejudiced against women? Some answers from research on attitudes, gender stereotypes, and judgments of competence. European Review of Social Psychology, 5(1), 1–35. doi:10.1080/14792779543000002
   Google Scholar
• Eagly, A. H., & Steffen, V. J. (1984). Gender stereotypes stem from the distribution of women and men into social roles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(4), 735–754. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.46.4.735
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (2012). Social role theory. In P. A. M. Van Lange, A. W. Kruglanski, & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 458–476). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Eaton, A. A., Saunders, J. F., Jacobson, R. K., & West, K. (2020). How gender and race stereotypes impact the advancement of scholars in STEM: Professors’ biased evaluations of physics and biology post-doctoral candidates. Sex Roles, 82(3–4), 127–141. doi:10.1007/s11199-019-01052-w
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eccles, J. S., Wigfield, A., Harold, R. D., & Blumenfeld, P. (1993). Age and gender differences in children’s self- and task perceptions during elementary school. Child Development, 64(3), 830. doi:10.2307/1131221
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehrlinger, J., & Dunning, D. (2003). How chronic self-views influence (and potentially mislead) estimates of performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(1), 5–17. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.1.5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Else-Quest, N. M., Hyde, J. S., & Linn, M. C. (2010). Cross-national patterns of gender differences in mathematics: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 136(1), 103–127. doi:10.1037/a0018053
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farland-Smith, D. (2014). How important are same-gender role models to middle school girls? Five characteristics of mentors who sustain middle-school girls’ interest in science careers. Journal of Education and Training, 2(1), 1–21. doi:10.5296/jet.v2i1.5423
   Google Scholar
• Farris, E. M., & Holman, M. R. (2014). Social capital and solving the puzzle of Black women’s political participation. Politics, Groups, and Identities, 2(3), 331–349. doi:10.1080/21565503.2014.925813
   Google Scholar
• Ferrant, G., & Nowacka, K. (2015). Measuring the drivers of gender inequality and their impact on development: The role of discriminatory social institutions. Gender & Development, 23(2), 319–332. doi:10.1080/13552074.2015.1053221
   Google Scholar
• Flore, P. C., Mulder, J., & Wicherts, J. M. (2018). The influence of gender stereotype threat on mathematics test scores of Dutch high school students: A registered report. Comprehensive Results in Social Psychology, 3(2), 140–174. doi:10.1080/23743603.2018.1559647
   Google Scholar
• Fort, D. C., & Varney, H. L. (1989). How students see scientists: Mostly male, mostly white, and mostly benevolent. Science and Children, 26(8), 8–13.
   Google Scholar
• Fox, R. L., & Lawless, J. L. (2005). To run or not to run for office: Explaining nascent political ambition. American Journal of Political Science, 49(3), 642–659. doi:10.2307/3647737
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fox, R. L., & Lawless, J. L. (2010). If only they’d ask: Gender, recruitment, and political Ambition. The Journal of Politics, 72(2), 310–326. doi:10.1017/S0022381609990752
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fox, R. L., & Lawless, J. L. (2014). Uncovering the origins of the gender gap in political ambition. American Political Science Review, 108(3), 499–421. doi:10.1017/S0003055414000227
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fox, R. L., & Smith, E. R. A. N. (1998). The role of candidate sex in voter decision-making. Political Psychology, 19(2), 405–419. doi:10.1111/0162-895X.00110
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fridkin, K. L., & Kenney, P. J. (2007). Examining the gender gap in children’s attitudes toward politics. Sex Roles, 56(3–4), 133–140. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9156-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fulton, S. A. (2012). Running backwards and in high heels: The gendered quality gap and incumbent electoral success. Political Research Quarterly, 65(2), 303–314. doi:10.1177/1065912911401419
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furman, W., & Buhrmester, D. (1985). Children’s perceptions of the personal relationships in their social networks. Developmental Psychology, 21(6), 1016–1024. doi:10.1037//0012-1649.21.6.1016
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galdi, S., Cadinu, M., & Tomasetto, C. (2014). The roots of stereotype threat: When automatic associations disrupt girls' math performance. Child Development, 85(1), 250–263. doi:10.1111/cdev.12128
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galdi, S., Mirisola, A., & Tomasetto, C. (2017). On the relations between parents’ and children’s implicit and explicit academic gender stereotypes. Psicologia Sociale, 2(2), 215–238. doi:10.1482/87248
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media, & Lydia Hill Foundation. (2018). Portray her: Representations of women STEM characters in media. Retrieved from https://seejane.org/wp-content/uploads/portray-her-full-report.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Girl Scout Research Institute. (2019). Decoding the digital girl. Retrieved from https://www.girlscouts.org/content/dam/girlscouts-gsusa/forms-and-documents/about-girl-scouts/research/GSUSA_GSRI_Decoding-the-Digital-Girl_Full-Report.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Girl Scouts Research Institute. (2008). Change it up! What girls say about redefining leadership. Retrieved from https://www.girlscouts.org/content/dam/girlscouts-gsusa/forms-and-documents/about-girl-scouts/research/change_it_up_executive_summary_english.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Girl Scouts Research Institute. (2014). Running for a change: Girls and politics pulse poll. Retrieved from https://www.girlscouts.org/content/dam/girlscouts-gsusa/forms-and-documents/about-girl-scouts/research/girls_and_politics.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Glick, P., Fiske, S. T., Mladinic, A., Saiz, J. L., Abrams, D., Masser, B., … López, W. L. (2000). Beyond prejudice as simple antipathy: Hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(5), 763–775. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.79.5.763
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzalez, A. M., Oh, H. J. J., & Baron, A. S. (2019). The hidden classroom: How gender stereotypes impact academic achievement. doi:10.31234/osf.io/dws9q
   Google Scholar
• Good, C., Rattan, A., & Dweck, C. S. (2012). Why do women opt out? Sense of belonging and women’s representation in mathematics. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(4), 700–717. doi:10.1037/a0026659
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Good, J. J., Woodzicka, J. A., & Wingfield, L. C. (2010). The effects of gender stereotypic and counter-stereotypic textbook images on science performance. The Journal of Social Psychology, 150(2), 132–147. doi:10.1080/00224540903366552
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenlee, J. S., Holman, M. R., & Vansickle-Ward, R. (2014). Making it personal: Assessing the impact of in-class exercises on closing the gender gap in political ambition. Journal of Political Science Education, 10(1), 48–61. doi:10.1080/15512169.2013.859083
   Google Scholar
• Gunderson, E. A., Ramirez, G., Levine, S. C., & Beilock, S. L. (2012). The role of parents and teachers in the development of gender-related math attitudes. Sex Roles, 66(3–4), 153–166. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-9996-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halpern, D. F., Eliot, L., Bigler, R. S., Fabes, R. A., Hanish, L. D., Hyde, J., … Martin, C. L. (2011). The pseudoscience of single-sex schooling. Science, 333(6050), 1706–1707.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heldman, C., Cooper, R., Narayanan, S., Somandepalli, K., Burrows, E., Christensen, S., … Virgo, J. (2020). See Jane 2020 film. Retrieved from https://seejane.org/wp-content/uploads/2020-film-historic-gender-parity-in-family-films-report-4.20.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Heldman, C., Narayanan, S., Cooper, R., Conroy, M., Giaccardi, S., Cooper-Jones, N., … Young, A. (2020). See Jane 2020 TV report. Retrieved from https://seejane.org/wp-content/uploads/2020-tv-historic-screen-time-speaking-time-for-female-characters-report.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Herzig, A. H. (2004). Becoming mathematicians: Women and students of color choosing and leaving doctoral mathematics. Review of Educational Research, 74(2), 171–214. doi:10.3102/00346543074002171
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holman, M. R., Merolla, J. L., & Zechmeister, E. J. (2016). Terrorist threat, male stereotypes, and candidate evaluations. Political Research Quarterly, 69(1), 134–147. doi:10.1177/1065912915624018
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holman, M. R., & Schneider, M. C. (2018). Gender, race, and political ambition: How intersectionality and frames influence interest in political office. Politics, Groups & Identities, 6(2), 268–280. doi:10.1080/21565503.2016.1208105
   Google Scholar
• Hoyt, C. L., & Murphy, S. E. (2016). Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 27(3), 387–399. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2015.11.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoyt, C. L., & Simon, S. (2011). Female leaders: Injurious or inspiring role models for women? Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35(1), 143–157. doi:10.1177/0361684310385216
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huddy, L., & Capelos, T. (2002). Gender Stereotyping and Candidate Evaluation. In V. C. Ottati, R. S. Tindale, J. Edwards, F. B. Bryant, L. Health, D. C. O’Connell, E. J. Posavac (Eds.), The Social Psychology of Politics. Social Psychological Applications to Social Issues (pp. 29–53). Boston, MA: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Huddy, L., & Terkildsen, N. (1993a). Gender stereotypes and the perception of male and female candidates. American Journal of Political Science, 37(1), 119–147. doi:10.2307/2111526
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huddy, L., & Terkildsen, N. (1993b). The consequences of gender stereotypes for women candidates at different levels and types of office. Political Research Quarterly, 46(3), 503–525. doi:10.2307/448945
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes, M. M. (2011). Intersectionality, quotas, and minority women’s political representation worldwide. American Political Science Review, 105(3), 604–620. doi:10.1017/S0003055411000293
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huguet, P., & Régner, I. (2007). Stereotype threat among schoolgirls in quasi-ordinary classroom circumstances. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(3), 545–560. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.99.3.545
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hyde, J. S., Lindberg, S. M., Linn, M. C., Ellis, A. B., & Williams, C. C. (2008). Diversity, Gender similarities characterize math performance. Science, 321(5888), 494–495. doi:10.1126/science.1160364
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ireland, D. T., Freeman, K. E., Winston-Proctor, C. E., DeLaine, K. D., McDonald Lowe, S., & Woodson, K. M. (2018). (Un)hidden figures: A synthesis of research examining the intersectional experiences of Black women and girls in STEM education. Review of Research in Education, 42(1), 226–254. doi:10.3102/0091732X18759072
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobs, C. E. (2020). Ready to lead: Leadership supports and barriers for Black and Latinx girls. https://cdn.girlsleadership.org/app/uploads/2020/07/GirlsLeadership_ReadytoLeadReport.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Jacobs, J. E., & Eccles, J. S. (1992). The impact of mothers’ gender-role stereotypic beliefs on mothers’ and children’s ability perceptions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63(6), 932–944. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.63.6.932
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaxon, J., Lei, R. F., Shachnai, R., Chestnut, E. K., & Cimpian, A. (2019). The acquisition of gender stereotypes about intellectual ability: Intersections with race. Journal of Social Issues, 75(4), 1192–1215. doi:10.1111/josi.12352
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jennings, M. K., Stoker, L., & Bowers, J. (2009). Politics across generations: Family transmission reexamined. The Journal of Politics, 71(3), 782–799. doi:10.1017/S0022381609090719
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jordan-Zachery, J. S., & Alexander-Floyd, N. G. (Eds.). (2018). Black women in politics: Demanding citizenship, challenging power, and seeking justice. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
   Google Scholar
• Junn, J., & Brown, N. E. (2008). What revolution? Incorporating intersectionality in women and politics. In C. Wolbrecht, K. Beckwith, & L. Baldez (Eds.), Political Women and American Democracy (pp. 64–78). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kanthak, K., & Woon, J. (2015). Women don’t run? Election aversion and candidate entry. American Journal of Political Science, 59(3), 595–612. doi:10.1111/ajps.12158
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kenthirarajah, D., & Walton, G. M. (2015). How brief social-psychological interventions can cause enduring effects (pp. 1–15). InEmerging trends in the social and behavioral sciences: An interdisciplinary, searchable, and linkable resource. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Kerkhoven, A. H., Russo, P., Land-Zandstra, A. M., Saxena, A., & Rodenburg, F. J. (2016). Gender stereotypes in science education resources: A visual content analysis. PLOS One, 11(11), e0165037–13. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0165037
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koenig, A. M., Eagly, A. H., Mitchell, A. A., & Ristikari, T. (2011). Are leader stereotypes masculine? A meta-analysis of three research paradigms. Psychological Bulletin, 137(4), 616–642. doi:10.1037/a0023557
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kowalski, T. J., McCord, R. S., Petersen, G. J., Young, I. P., & Ellerson, N. M. (2016). The American school superintendent: 2010 Decennial study. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.
   Google Scholar
• Krook, M. L. (2009). Quotas for women in politics. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Krupnikov, Y., Piston, S., & Bauer, N. M. (2016). Saving face: Identifying voter responses to Black candidates and female candidates. Political Psychology, 37(2), 253–273. doi:10.1111/pops.12261
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Latu, I. M., Mast, M. S., Lammers, J., & Bombari, D. (2013). Successful female leaders empower women’s behavior in leadership tasks. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49(3), 444–448. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2013.01.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawless, J. L. (2004). Women, war, and winning elections: Gender stereotyping in the post-September 11th era. Political Research Quarterly, 57(3), 479–490. doi:10.1177/106591290405700312
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawless, J. L. (2015). Female candidates and legislators. Annual Review of Political Science, 18(1), 349–366. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-020614-094613
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawless, J. L., & Fox, R. L. (2008). Why are women still not running for public office? Issues in Governance Studies, 16, 1–20. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/05_women_lawless_fox.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Lawless, J. L., & Fox, R. L. (2013). Girls just wanna not run. Washington, DC: Women & Politics Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Lawless, J. L., & Pearson, K. (2008). The primary reason for women’s underrepresentation? Reevaluating the conventional wisdom. The Journal of Politics, 70(1), 67–82. doi:10.1017/S002238160708005X
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lay, J. C., Holman, M. R., Bos, A. L., Greenlee, J. S., Oxley, Z. M., Buffett, A., … Al, E. T. (2021). TIME for kids to learn gender stereotypes: Analysis of gender and political leadership in a common social studies resource for children. Politics & Gender, 17(1), 1–22. doi:10.1017/S1743923X19000540
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarus, J., & Steigerwalt, A. (2018). Gendered vulnerability: How women work harder to stay in office. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
   Google Scholar
• Leaper, C. (2014). Do I belong? Gender, peer groups, and STEM achievement. International Journal of Gender, Science, and Technology, 7(2), 167–179.
   Google Scholar
• Legewie, J., & DiPrete, T. A. (2014). The high school environment and the gender gap in science and engineering. Sociology of Education, 87(4), 259–280. doi:10.1177/0038040714547770
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lei, R. F., Green, E. R., Leslie, S.-J., & Rhodes, M. (2019). Children lose confidence in their potential to “be scientists,” but not in their capacity to “do science.” Developmental Science, 22(6), 1–8. doi:10.1111/desc.12837
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leslie, S.-J., Cimpian, A., Meyer, M., & Freeland, E. (2015). Expectations of brilliance underlie gender distributions across academic disciplines. Science, 347(6219), 262–265. doi:10.1126/science.1261375
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liben, L. S., & Bigler, R. S. (2002). The developmental course of gender differentiation: Conceptualizing, measuring, and evaluating constructs and pathways. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 67(2), 1–183. doi:10.1111/1540-5834.t01-1-00187
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Livingston, R. W., Rosette, A. S., & Washington, E. F. (2012). Can an agentic Black woman get ahead? The impact of race and interpersonal dominance on perceptions of female leaders. Psychological Science, 23(4), 354–358. doi:10.1177/0956797611428079
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Long, M., Boiarsky, G., & Thayer, G. (2001). Gender and racial counter-stereotypes in science education television: A content analysis. Public Understanding of Science, 10(3), 255–269. doi:10.3109/a036869
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maloney, E. A., Ramirez, G., Gunderson, E. A., Levine, S. C., & Beilock, S. L. (2015). Intergenerational effects of parents' math anxiety on children's math achievement and anxiety. Psychological Science, 26(9), 1480–1488. doi:10.1177/0956797615592630
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maltese, A. V., & Tai, R. H. (2010). Eyeballs in the fridge: Sources of early interest in science. International Journal of Science Education, 32(5), 669–685. doi:10.1080/09500690902792385
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maltese, A. V., & Tai, R. H. (2011). Pipeline persistence: Examining the association of educational experiences with earned degrees in STEM among U.S. students. Science Education, 95(5), 877–907. doi:10.1002/sce.20441
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Margolis, J., Fisher, A., & Miller, F. (2000). The anatomy of interest: Women in undergraduate computer science. Women’s Studies Quarterly, 28(1/2), 104–127.
   Google Scholar
• Master, A., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2016). Building bridges between psychological science and education: Cultural stereotypes, STEM, and equity. Prospects, 46(2), 215–234. doi:10.1007/s11125-017-9391-z
   Google Scholar
• Master, A., Cheryan, S., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2017). Social group membership increases STEM engagement among preschoolers. Developmental Psychology, 53(2), 201–209. doi:10.1037/dev0000195
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Master, A., Cheryan, S., Moscatelli, A., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2017). Programming experience promotes higher STEM motivation among first-grade girls. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 160, 92–106. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2017.03.013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maurer, E.L., Patrick, J., Britto, L.M., & Millar, H. (2016). Where are the women? A report on the status of women in the United States social studies standards. National Women’s History Museum. https://www.womenshistory.org/sites/default/files/museum-assets/document/2018-01/NWHM_Status-of-Women-in-State-Social-Studies-Standards.pdf
   Google Scholar
• McGlone, M. S., Aronson, J., & Kobrynowicz, D. (2006). Stereotype threat and the gender gap in political knowledge. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30(4), 392–398. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2006.00314.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKenney, S., & Voogt, J. (2010). Technology and young children: How 4–7 year olds perceive their own use of computers. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(4), 656–664. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.01.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer, M., Cimpian, A., & Leslie, S.-J. (2015). Women are underrepresented in fields where success is believed to require brilliance. Frontiers in Psychology, 6(235), 235–212. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00235
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Milkman, K. L., Akinola, M., & Chugh, D. (2015). What happens before? A field experiment exploring how pay and representation differentially shape bias on the pathway into organizations. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 100(6), 1678–1712. doi:10.1037/apl0000022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, D. I., Eagly, A. H., & Linn, M. C. (2015). Women’s representation in science predicts national gender-science stereotypes: Evidence from 66 nations. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 631–644. doi:10.1037/edu0000005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, D. I., Nolla, K. M., Eagly, A. H., & Uttal, D. H. (2018). The development of children's gender-science stereotypes: A meta-analysis of 5 decades of U.S. draw-a-scientist studies. Child Development, 89(6), 1943–1955. doi:10.1111/cdev.13039
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, D. I., & Wai, J. (2015). The bachelor’s to Ph.D. STEM pipeline no longer leaks more women than men: A 30-year analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 6(37), 37–10. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00037
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mitchell-Walthour, G. L. (2018). Blackness: Racial identity and political behavior in contemporary Brazil. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mo, C. H. (2015). The consequences of explicit and implicit gender attitudes and candidate quality in the calculations of voters. Political Behavior, 37(2), 357–395. doi:10.1007/s11109-014-9274-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moss-Racusin, C. A., Dovidio, J. F., Brescoll, V. L., Graham, M. J., & Handelsman, J. (2012). Science faculty's subtle gender biases favor male students. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109(41), 16474–16479. doi:10.1073/pnas.1211286109
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muzzatti, B., & Agnoli, F. (2007). Gender and mathematics: Attitudes and stereotype threat susceptibility in Italian children. Developmental Psychology, 43(3), 747–759. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.3.747
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine. (2020). Promising practices for addressing the underrepresentation of women in science, engineering, and medicine: Opening doors. Consensus study report. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
   Google Scholar
• Niven, D. (1998). Party elites and women candidates: The shape of bias. Women & Politics, 19(2), 57–80. doi:10.1300/J014v19n02_03
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nosek, B. A., Smyth, F. L., Hansen, J. J., Devos, T., Lindner, N. M., Ranganath, K. A., … Banaji, M. R. (2007). Pervasiveness and correlates of implicit attitudes and stereotypes. European Review of Social Psychology, 18(1), 36–88. doi:10.1080/10463280701489053
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nosek, B. A., Smyth, F. L., Sriram, N., Lindner, N. M., Devos, T., Ayala, A., … Greenwald, A. G. (2009). National differences in gender-science stereotypes predict national sex differences in science and math achievement. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(26), 10593–10597. doi:10.1073/pnas.0809921106
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Brien, L. T., Blodorn, A., Adams, G., Garcia, D. M., & Hammer, E. (2015). Ethnic variation in gender-STEM stereotypes and STEM participation: An intersectional approach. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 21(2), 169–112. doi:10.1037/a0037944
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Brien, L. T., Hitti, A., Shaffer, E., Van Camp, A. R., Henry, D., & Gilbert, P. N. (2017). Improving girls’ sense of fit in science: Increasing the impact of role models. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 8(3), 301–309. doi:10.1177/1948550616671997
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Dea, R. E., Lagisz, M., Jennions, M. D., & Nakagawa, S. (2018). Gender differences in individual variation in academic grades fail to fit expected patterns for STEM. Nature Communications, 9(1), 1–8. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-06292-0
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Okazawa-Rey, M., Robinson, T., & Ward, J. V. (1987). Black women and the politics of skin color and hair. Women & Therapy, 6(1–2), 89–102. doi:10.1300/J015V06N01_07
   Google Scholar
• Okimoto, T. G., & Brescoll, V. L. (2010). The price of power: Power seeking and backlash against female politicians. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(7), 923–936. doi:10.1177/0146167210371949
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oppermann, E., Brunner, M., & Anders, Y. (2019). The interplay between preschool teachers’ science self-efficacy beliefs, their teaching practices, and girls’ and boys’ early science motivation. Learning and Individual Differences, 70, 86–99. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2019.01.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parkin, C., & Mackenzie, S. (2017). Is there gender bias in key stage 3 science textbooks?: Content analysis using the Gender Bias 14 (GB14) measurement tool. Advanced Journal of Professional Practice, 1(1), 23–40.
   Google Scholar
• Parks-Stamm, E. J., Heilman, M. E., & Hearns, K. A. (2008). Motivated to penalize: Women's strategic rejection of successful women. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(2), 237–247. doi:10.1177/0146167207310027
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Passolunghi, M. C., Rueda Ferreira, T. I., & Tomasetto, C. (2014). Math-gender stereotypes and math-related beliefs in childhood and early adolescence. Learning and Individual Differences, 34, 70–76. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2014.05.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pate, J., & Fox, R. (2018). Getting past the gender gap in political ambition. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 156, 166–183. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2018.10.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patrick, H., Mantzicopoulos, P., & Samarapungavan, A. (2009). Motivation for learning science in kindergarten: Is there a gender gap and does integrated inquiry and literacy instruction make a difference. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 46(2), 166–191. doi:10.1002/tea.20276
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patterson, M. M., Bigler, R. S., Pahlke, E., Brown, C. S., Hayes, A. R., Ramirez, M. C., & Nelson, A. (2019). Toward a developmental science of politics. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 84(3), 7–185. doi:10.1111/mono.12410
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patterson, M. M., Pahlke, E., & Bigler, R. S. (2013). Witnesses to history: Children’s views of race and the 2008 United States presidential election. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 13(1), 186–210. doi:10.1111/j.1530-2415.2012.01303.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perry, B. L., Link, T., Boelter, C., & Leukefeld, C. (2012). Blinded to science: Gender differences in the effects of race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status on academic and science attitudes among sixth graders. Gender and Education, 24(7), 725–743. doi:10.1080/09540253.2012.685702
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Political Parity. (2014). Shifting gears: How women navigate the road to higher office. Retrieved from https://www.politicalparity.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Shifting-Gears-Report.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Preece, J. R. (2016). Mind the gender gap: An experiment on the influence of self-efficacy on political interest. Politics & Gender, 12(01), 198–217. doi:10.1017/S1743923X15000628
   Google Scholar
• Preece, J. R., & Stoddard, O. (2015). Why women don’t run: Experimental evidence on gender differences in political competition aversion. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 117, 296–308. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2015.04.019
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reifen Tagar, M., Hetherington, C., Shulman, D., & Koenig, M. (2017). On the path to social dominance? Individual differences in sensitivity to intergroup fairness violations in early childhood. Personality and Individual Differences, 113, 246–250. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.03.020
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rhodes, M., Leslie, S.-J., Yee, K. M., & Saunders, K. (2019). Subtle linguistic cues increase girls' engagement in science. Psychological Science, 30(3), 455–466. doi:10.1177/0956797618823670
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ridgeway, C. L. (2001). Gender, status, and leadership. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 637–655. doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00233
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riegle-Crumb, C., King, B., Grodsky, E., & Muller, C. (2012). The more things change, the more they stay the same? Prior achievement fails to explain gender inequality in entry into STEM college majors over time. American Educational Research Journal, 49(6), 1048–1073. doi:10.3102/0002831211435229
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riegle-Crumb, C., Moore, C., & Ramos-Wada, A. (2011). Who wants to have a career in science or math? Exploring adolescents’ future aspirations by gender and race/ethnicity. Science Education, 95(3), 458–476. doi:10.1002/sce.20431
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riegle-Crumb, C., & Morton, K. (2017). Gendered expectations: Examining how peers shape female students’ intent to pursue STEM fields. Frontiers in Psychology, 8(329), 329–311. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00329
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Robinson-Cimpian, J. P., Lubienski, S. T., Ganley, C. M., & Copur-Gencturk, Y. (2014). Teachers' perceptions of students' mathematics proficiency may exacerbate early gender gaps in achievement. Developmental Psychology, 50(4), 1262–1281. doi:10.1037/a0035073
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosette, A. S., Koval, C. Z., Ma, A., & Livingston, R. (2016). Race matters for women leaders: Intersectional effects on agentic deficiencies and penalties. The Leadership Quarterly, 27(3), 429–445. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2016.01.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosette, A. S., & Livingston, R. W. (2012). Failure is not an option for Black women: Effects of organizational performance on leaders with single versus dual-subordinate identities. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(5), 1162–1167. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.05.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rudman, L. A. (1998). Self-promotion as a risk factor for women: The costs and benefits of counterstereotypical impression management. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(3), 629–645. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.3.629
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rudman, L. A., & Glick, P. (1999). Feminized management and backlash toward agentic women: The hidden costs to women of a kinder, gentler image of middle managers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(5), 1004–1010. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.5.1004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rudman, L. A., & Phelan, J. E. (2010). The effect of priming gender roles on women’s implicit gender beliefs and career aspirations. Social Psychology, 41(3), 192–202. doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000027
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanbonmatsu, K. (2006). Do parties know that “women win”? Party leader beliefs about women’s electoral chances. Politics and Gender, 2(4), 431–450. doi:10.1017/S1743923X06060132
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanbonmatsu, K. (2017). Political parity: Research Inventory. Retrieved from https://www.politicalparity.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Parity-Research-Full.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Saw, G., Chang, C. N., & Chan, H. Y. (2018). Cross-sectional and longitudinal disparities in STEM career aspirations at the intersection of gender, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. Educational Researcher, 47(8), 525–531. doi:10.3102/0013189X18787818
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmader, T., Johns, M., & Barquissau, M. (2004). The costs of accepting gender differences: The role of stereotype endorsement in women’s experience in the math domain. Sex Roles, 50(11/12), 835–850. doi:10.1023/B:SERS.0000029101.74557.a0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schneider, M. C., & Bos, A. L. (2019). The application of social role theory to the study of gender in politics. Political Psychology, 40(S1), 173–213. doi:10.1111/pops.12573
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schneider, M. C., Holman, M. R., Diekman, A. B., & McAndrew, T. (2016). Power, conflict, and community: How gendered views of political power influence women’s political ambition. Political Psychology, 37(4), 515–531. doi:10.1111/pops.12268
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schyns, B., Tymon, A., Kiefer, T., & Kerschreiter, R. (2013). New ways to leadership development: A picture paints a thousand words. Management Learning, 44(1), 11–24. doi:10.1177/1350507612456499
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott, K. A., & Brown, D. J. (2006). Female first, leader second? Gender bias in the encoding of leadership behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 101(2), 230–242. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2006.06.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shapiro, J. R., & Williams, A. M. (2012). The role of stereotype threats in undermining girls’ and women’s performance and interest in STEM fields. Sex Roles, 66(3–4), 175–183. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-0051-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sigelman, C. K., Sigelman, L., Thomas, D. B., & Ribich, F. D. (1986). Gender, physical attractiveness, and electability: An experimental investigation of voter biases. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 16(3), 229–248. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1986.tb01137.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simon, A. (2017). How can we explain the gender gap in children’s political knowledge? American Behavioral Scientist, 61(2), 222–237. doi:10.1177/0002764216689123
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simpkins, S. D., Davis-Kean, P. E., & Eccles, J. S. (2005). Parents’ socializing behavior and children’s participation in math, science, and computer out-of-school activities. Applied Developmental Science, 9(1), 14–30. doi:10.1207/s1532480xads0901_3
   Google Scholar
• Smith, J. L., Paul, D., & Paul, R. (2007). No place for a woman: Evidence for gender bias in evaluations of presidential candidates. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 29(3), 225–233. doi:10.1080/01973530701503069
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spelke, E. S. (2005). Sex differences in intrinsic aptitude for mathematics and science?: A critical review. American Psychologist, 60(9), 950–958. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.60.9.950
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steffens, M. C., Jelenec, P., & Noack, P. (2010). On the leaky math pipeline: Comparing implicit math-gender stereotypes and math withdrawal in female and male children and adolescents. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(4), 947–963. doi:10.1037/a0019920
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steinke, J., Lapinski, M. K., Long, M., Van Der Maas, C., Ryan, L., & Applegate, B. (2009). Seeing oneself as a scientist: Media influences and adolescent girls’ science career-possible selves. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 15(4), 279–301. doi:10.1615/JWomenMinorScienEng.v15.i4.10
   Google Scholar
• Steinke, J., & Long, M. (1996). A lab of her own?: Portrayals of female characters on children’s educational science programs. Science Communication, 18(2), 91–115. doi:10.1177/1075547096018002001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephens-Davidowitz, S. (2014). Google, tell me. Is my son a genius? New York Times.
   Google Scholar
• Storage, D., Horne, Z., Cimpian, A., & Leslie, S.-J. (2016). The frequency of “brilliant” and “genius” in teaching evaluations predicts the representation of women and African Americans across fields. PLOS One, 11(3), e0150194. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0150194
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sullivan, J., Moss-Racusin, C., Lopez, M., & Williams, K. (2018). Backlash against gender stereotype-violating preschool children. PLOS One, 13(4), e0195503–24. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0195503
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sweet-Cushman, J. (2019). See it; be it? The use of role models in campaign trainings for women. Politics, Groups, and Identities, 7(4), 853–863. doi:10.1080/21565503.2018.1531771
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tai, R. H., Liu, C. Q., Maltese, A. V., & Fan, X. (2006). Planning early for careers in science. Science, 312(5777), 1143–1144. doi:10.1126/science.1128690
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teele, D. L., Kalla, J., & Rosenbluth, F. (2018). The ties that double bind: Social roles and women’s underrepresentation in politics. American Political Science Review, 112(3), 525–541. doi:10.1017/S0003055418000217
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tenenbaum, H. R., & Leaper, C. (2003). Parent-child conversations about science: The socialization of gender inequities? Developmental Psychology, 39(1), 34–47. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.39.1.34
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tiedemann, J. (2000). Gender-related beliefs of teachers in elementary school mathematics. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 41(2), 191–207. doi:10.1023/A:1003953801526
   Google Scholar
• Trumpy, A. J., & Elliott, M. (2019). You lead like a girl: Gender and children’s leadership development. Sociological Perspectives, 62(3), 346–365. doi:10.1177/0731121418808800
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Upadyaya, K., & Eccles, J. S. (2014). How do teachers’ beliefs predict children’s interest in math from kindergarten to sixth grade? Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 60(4), 403–430. doi:10.13110/merrpalmquar1982.60.4.0403
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verba, S., Burns, N., & Schlozman, K. L. (1997). Knowing and caring about politics: Gender and political engagement. The Journal of Politics, 59(4), 1051–1072. doi:10.2307/2998592
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vial, A. C., Napier, J. L., & Brescoll, V. L. (2016). A bed of thorns: Female leaders and the self-reinforcing cycle of illegitimacy. The Leadership Quarterly, 27(3), 400–414. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2015.12.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Victory Institute. (2019). Out for America 2019: A census of out LGBTQ elected officials nationwide. Retrieved from https://victoryinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Victory-Institute-Out-for-America-Report-2019.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Walton, G. M., & Wilson, T. D. (2018). Wise interventions: Psychological remedies for social and personal problems. Psychological Review, 125(5), 617–655. doi:10.1037/rev0000115
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, M.-T., & Degol, J. (2013). Motivational pathways to STEM career choices: Using expectancy-value perspective to understand individual and gender differences in STEM fields. Developmental Review, 33(4), 304–340. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2013.08.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weisgram, E. S., & Bigler, R. S. (2007). Effects of learning about gender discrimination on adolescent girls’ attitudes toward and interest in science. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31(3), 262–269. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00369.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, M. J., & Tiedens, L. Z. (2016). The subtle suspension of backlash: A meta-analysis of penalties for women’s implicit and explicit dominance behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 142(2), 165–197. doi:10.1037/bul0000039
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolak, J., & McDevitt, M. (2011). The roots of the gender gap in political knowledge in adolescence. Political Behavior, 33(3), 505–533. doi:10.1007/s11109-010-9142-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolbrecht, C., & Campbell, D. E. (2007). Leading by example: Female members of Parliament as political role models. American Journal of Political Science, 51(4), 921–939. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2007.00289.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Economic Forum. (2020). Global gender gap report 2020. http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2020.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Wray-Lake, L., Arruda, E. H., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2020). Civic development across the transition to adulthood in a national U.S. sample: Variations by race/ethnicity, parent education, and gender. Developmental Psychology, 56(10), 1948–1967. doi:10.1037/dev0001101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoder, J. B., & Mattheis, A. (2016). Queer in STEM: Workplace experiences reported in a national survey of LGBTQA individuals in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics careers. Journal of Homosexuality, 63(1), 1–27. doi:10.1080/00918369.2015.1078632
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zenger Folkman. (2015). A study in leadership: Women do it better than men. In Hurley, K. & Shumway, P. (Eds.), Real women, real leaders: Surviving and Succeeding in the Business World. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Hoboken, NJ. pp. 165–172.
   Google Scholar