A conceptual model for generating and validating in-session clinical judgments

References

• Aarons, G. A., Hurlburt, M., & Horwitz, S. M. (2011). Advancing a conceptual model of evidence-based practice implementation in public service sectors. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 38, 4–23. doi: 10.1007/s10488-010-0327-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aarts, A. A., Witteman, C. L., Souren, P. M., & Egger, J. I. (2012). Associations between psychologists’ thinking styles and accuracy on a diagnostic classification task. Synthese, 189, 119–130. doi: 10.1007/s11229-012-0081-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ackerman, S. J., & Hilsenroth, M. J. (2001). A review of therapist characteristics and techniques negatively impacting the therapeutic alliance. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 38, 171–185. doi: 10.1037/0033-3204.38.2.171
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ackerman, S. J., & Hilsenroth, M. J. (2003). A review of therapist characteristics and techniques positively impacting the therapeutic alliance. Clinical Psychology Review, 23, 1–33. doi: 10.1016/S0272-7358(02)00146-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5 (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Angus, L., Watson, J. C., Elliott, R., Schneider, K., & Timulak, L. (2015). Humanistic psychotherapy research 1990–2015: From methodological innovation to evidence-supported treatment outcomes and beyond. Psychotherapy Research, 25, 330–347. doi: 10.1080/10503307.2014.989290
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Apel, K. (2011). Science is an attitude: A response to Kamhi. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 42, 65–68. doi: 10.1044/0161-1461(2009/09-0036)
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arkes, H. R. (1991). Costs and benefits of judgment errors: Implications for debiasing. Psychological bulletin, 110, 486–498. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.110.3.486
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arnoult, L. H., & Anderson, C. A. (1988). Identifying and reducing causal reasoning biases in clinical practice. In D. Turk & P. Salovey (Eds.), Reasoning, inference, and judgment in clinical psychology (pp. 209–232). New York: Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bargh, J. A., & Chartrand, T. L. (1999). The unbearable automaticity of being. American Psychologist, 54, 462–479. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.462
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bargh, J. A., & Ferguson, M. J. (2000). Beyond behaviorism: On the automaticity of higher mental processes. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 925–945. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.126.6.925
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beevers, C. G. (2005). Cognitive vulnerability to depression: A dual process model. Clinical Psychology Review, 25, 975–1002. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2005.03.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braga, J. N., Ferreira, M. B., & Sherman, S. J. (2015). The effects of construal level on heuristic reasoning: The case of representativeness and availability. Decision, 2, 216–227. doi: 10.1037/dec0000021
   Google Scholar
• Cacioppo, J. T., & Petty, R. E. (1982). The need for cognition. Journal of personality and social psychology, 42, 116–131. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.42.1.116
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Connolly Gibbons, M. B., Kurtz, J. E., Thompson, D. L., Mack, R. A., Lee, J. K., Rothbard, A., … Crits-Christoph, P. (2015). The effectiveness of clinician feedback in the treatment of depression in the community mental health system. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 83(4), 748–759. doi: 10.1037/a0039302
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dane, E., Rockmann, K. W., & Pratt, M. G. (2012). When should I trust my gut? Linking domain expertise to intuitive decision-making effectiveness. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 119, 187–194. doi: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2012.07.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darley, J. M., & Gross, P. H. (1983). A hypothesis-confirming bias in labeling effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 20–33. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.20
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dawes, R. M. (1979). The robust beauty of improper linear models in decision making. American Psychologist, 34, 571–582. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.34.7.571
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dawes, R. M., Faust, D., & Meehl, P. E. (1989). Clinical versus actuarial judgment. Science, 243, 1668–1674. doi: 10.1126/science.2648573
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devine, P. G., Hirt, E. R., & Gehrke, E. M. (1990). Diagnostic and confirmation strategies in trait hypothesis testing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 952–963. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.58.6.952
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Vries, M., Witteman, C. L., Holland, R. W., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2010). The unconscious thought effect in clinical decision making: An example in diagnosis. Medical Decision Making, 30, 578–581. doi: 10.1177/0272989X09360820
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dijksterhuis, A., Bos, M. W., Nordgren, L. F., & von Baaren, R. B. (2006). On making the right choice: The deliberation-without-attention effect. Science, 311, 1005–1007. doi: 10.1126/science.1121629
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doherty, M. E., & Mynatt, C. R. (1990). Inattention to P (H) and to P (D\∼H): A converging operation. Acta Psychologica, 75, 1–11. doi: 10.1016/0001-6918(90)90063-L
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duncan, B. L., Miller, S. D., Sparks, J. A., Claud, D. A., Reynolds, L. R., Brown, J., & Johnson, L. D. (2003). The session rating scale: Preliminary psychometric properties of a “working” alliance measure. Journal of Brief Therapy, 3, 3–12.
   Google Scholar
• Eells, T. D. (Ed.). (2011). Handbook of psychotherapy case formulation. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Elliott, R., & Wexler, M. M. (1994). Measuring the impact of sessions in process experiential therapy of depression: The session impacts scale. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 41, 166–174. doi: 10.1037/0022-0167.41.2.166
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elstein, A. S., & Schwarz, A. (2002). Evidence base of clinical diagnosis: Clinical problem solving and diagnostic decision making: Selective review of the cognitive literature. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 324, 729–732. doi: 10.1136/bmj.324.7339.729
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epstein, S. Pacini, R., Denes-Raj, V., & Heier, H. (1996). Individual differences in intuitive-experiential and analytic-rational thinking styles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 390–405. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.71.2.390
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans, J. S. B. (2008). Dual-processing accounts of reasoning, judgment, and social cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 255–278. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093629
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans, J. S. B., & Stanovich, K. E. (2013). Dual-process theories of higher cognition: Advancing the debate. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8, 223–241. 263–271. doi: 10.1177/1745691612460685
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evett, S. R., Devine, P. G., Hirt, E. R., & Price, J. (1994). The role of the hypothesis and the evidence in the trait hypothesis testing process. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 30, 456–481. doi: 10.1006/jesp.1994.1022
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Falvey, J. E. (2001). Clinical judgment in case conceptualization and treatment planning across mental health disciplines. Journal of Counseling & Development, 79(3), 292–303. doi: 10.1002/j.1556-6676.2001.tb01974.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferreira, M. B., Garcia-Marques, L., Sherman, S. J., & Sherman, J. W. (2006). Automatic and controlled components of judgment and decision making. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 797–813. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.91.5.797
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finn, S. E. (2007). In our clients’ shoes: Theory and techniques of therapeutic assessment. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
   Google Scholar
• Finn, S. E., Fischer, C. T., & Handler, L. (Eds.). (2012). Collaborative/therapeutic assessment: A casebook and guide. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Finn, S. E., & Tonsager, M. E. (1997). Information-gathering and therapeutic models of assessment: Complementary paradigms. Psychological Assessment, 9, 374–385. doi: 10.1037/1040-3590.9.4.374
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer, C. T. (2000). Collaborative, individualized assessment. Journal of Personality Assessment, 74, 2–14. doi: 10.1207/S15327752JPA740102
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frey, D. (1986). Recent research on selective exposure to information. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 19, 41–80. doi: 10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60212-9
   Google Scholar
• Gabbay, J., & le May, A. (2004). Evidence based guidelines or collectively constructed “mindlines?” Ethnographic study of knowledge management in primary care. British Medical Journal, 329, 1–5. doi: 10.1136/bmj.329.7473.1013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gabbay, J., & le May, A. (2011). Practice-based evidence for healthcare: Clinical mindlines. Abingdon: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Garb, H. N. (1998). Studying the clinician: Judgment research and psychological assessment. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
   Google Scholar
• Garb, H. N. (2005). Clinical judgment and decision-making. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 67–89. doi: 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.143810
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garland, A. F., Bickman, L., & Chorpita, B. F. (2010). Change what? Identifying quality improvement targets by investigating usual mental health care. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 37, 15–26. doi: 10.1007/s10488-010-0279-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaudiano, B. A., Brown, L. A., & Miller, I. W. (2011). Let your intuition be your guide? Individual differences in the evidence-based practice attitudes of psychotherapists. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice, 17, 628–634. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2753.2010.01508.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gigerenzer, G., & Gaissmaier, W. (2011). Heuristic decision making. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 451–482. doi: 10.1146/annurev-psych-120709-145346
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glöckner, A., & Witteman, C. (2010). Beyond dual-process models: A categorization of processes underlying intuitive judgment and decision making. Thinking & Reasoning, 16(1), 1–25. doi: 10.1080/13546780903395748
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonçalves, M. M., Ribeiro, A. P., Stiles, W. B., Conde, T., Matos, M., Martins, C., & Santos, A. (2011). The role of mutual in-feeding in maintaining problematic self-narratives: Exploring one path to therapeutic failure. Psychotherapy Research, 21, 27–40. doi: 10.1080/10503307.2010.507789
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grove, W. M., Zald, D. H., Lebow, B. S., Snitz, B. E., & Nelson, C. (2000). Clinical versus mechanical prediction: A meta-analysis. Psychological Assessment, 12(1), 19–30. doi: 10.1037/1040-3590.12.1.19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haidt, J. (2001). The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychological Review, 108(4), 814–834. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.108.4.814
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hammond, K. R. (1996). Human judgment and social policy: Irreducible uncertainty, inevitable error, unavoidable injustice. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hammond, K. R., Hamm, R. M., Grassia, J., & Pearson, T. (1987). Direct comparison of the efficacy of intuitive and analytical cognition in expert judgment. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, SMC-17(5), 753–770. doi: 10.1109/TSMC.1987.6499282
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes, S. C., Barlow, D. H., & Nelson-Gray, R. O. (1999). The scientist practitioner: Research and accountability in the age of managed care (2nd ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
   Google Scholar
• Hill, C. E. (2005). Therapist techniques, client involvement, and the therapeutic relationship: Inextricably intertwined in the therapy process. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 42, 431–442. doi: 10.1037/0033-3204.42.4.431
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill, C. E., Helms, J. E., Tichenor, V., Spiegel, S. B., O’Grady, K. E., & Perry, E. S. (1988). Effects of therapist response modes in brief psychotherapy. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 35, 322–233.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hilton, J. L., & Darley, J. M. (1991). The effects of interaction goals on person perception. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 24, pp. 235–267). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hodgins, H. S., & Zuckerman, M. (1993). Beyond selecting information: Biases in spontaneous questions and resultant conclusions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 29(5), 387–407. doi: 10.1006/jesp.1993.1018
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hogarth, R. M. (2001). Educating intuition. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hogarth, R. M. (2010). Intuition: A challenge for psychological research on decision making. Psychological Inquiry, 21, 338–353. doi: 10.1080/1047840X.2010.520260
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology (Vols. 1 and 2). New York: Dover, 1950.
   Google Scholar
• Kahneman, D., & Frederick, S. (2002). Representativeness revisited: Attribute substitution in intuitive judgment. In T. Gilovich, D. Griffin, & D. Kahneman (Eds.), Heuristic and biases: The psychology of intuitive judgment (pp. 49–81). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kahneman, D., & Frederick, S. (2005). A model of intuitive judgment. In K. J. Holyoak & R. G. Morrison (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of thinking and reasoning (pp. 267–293). New York: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kahneman, D., & Klein, G. (2009). Conditions for intuitive expertise: A failure to disagree. American Psychologist, 64(6), 515–526. doi: 10.1037/a0016755
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karelaia, N., & Hogarth, R. M. (2008). Determinants of linear judgment: A meta-analysis of lens model studies. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 404–426. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.134.3.404
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelley, S. D., & Bickman, L. (2009). Beyond outcomes monitoring: Measurement feedback systems (MFS) in child and adolescent clinical practice. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 22, 363–368. doi: 10.1097/YCO.0b013e32832c9162
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klayman, J., & Ha, Y. W. (1987). Confirmation, disconfirmation, and information in hypothesis testing. Psychological Review, 94, 211–228. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.94.2.211
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein, G. (1999). Sources of power. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Klein, G. (2008). Naturalistic decision making. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 50, 456–460. doi: 10.1518/001872008X288385
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein, G., & Calderwood, R. (1991). Decision models: Some lessons from the field. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, 21, 1018–1026. doi: 10.1109/21.120054
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein, G. A. (1993). A recognition-primed decision (RPD) model of rapid decision making. Decision Making in Action: Models and Methods, 5, 138–147.
   Google Scholar
• Koehler, D. J. (1991). Explanation, imagination, and confidence in judgment. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 499–519. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.110.3.499
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kruglanski, A. W., & Gigerenzer, G. (2011). Intuitive and deliberate judgments are based on common principles. Psychological Review, 118, 97–109. doi: 10.1037/a0020762
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kunda, Z. (1990). The case for motivated reasoning. Psychological Bulletin, 108(3), 480–498. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.480
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lagnado, D. A. (2011). Causal Thinking. In P. McKay-Illari, F. Russo, & J. Williamson (Eds.), Causality in the sciences (pp. 129–149). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lambert, M. J., Harmon, C., Slade, K., Whipple, J. L., & Hawkins, E. J. (2005). Providing feedback to psychotherapists on their patients’ progress: Clinical results and practice suggestions. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 165–174. doi: 10.1002/jclp.20113
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lambert, M. J., Whipple, J. L., Smart, D. W., Vermeersch, D. A., Nielsen, S. L., & Hawkins, E. J. (2001). The effects of providing therapists with feedback on patient progress during psychotherapy: Are outcomes enhanced? Psychotherapy Research, 11, 49–68. doi: 10.1080/713663852
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lambert, M. J., Whipple, J. L., Vermeersch, D. A., Smart, D. W., Hawkins, E. J., Nielsen, S. L., & Goates, M. (2002). Enhancing psychotherapy outcomes via providing feedback on client progress: A replication. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 9, 91–103. doi: 10.1002/cpp.324
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis, C. C., Scott, K., Marti, C. N., Marriott, B. R., Kroenke, K., Putz, J. W., … Rutkowski, D. (2015). Implementing measurement-based care (iMBC) for depression in community mental health: A dynamic cluster randomized trial study protocol. Implementation Science, 10, 1–14. doi: 10.1186/s13012-014-0195-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipshitz, R., Klein, G., Orasanu, J., & Salas, E. (2001). Focus article: Taking stock of naturalistic decision making. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 14(5), 331–352. doi: 10.1002/bdm.381
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lutz, W., & Hill, C. E. (2009). Quantitative and qualitative methods for psychotherapy research: Introduction to special section. Psychotherapy Research, 19, 369–373. doi: 10.1080/10503300902948053
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marsh, J. K., & Ahn, W. (2012). Memory for patient information as a function of experience in mental health. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 26, 462–474. doi: 10.1002/acp.2832
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meehl, P. E. (1954). Clinical vs. statistical prediction: A theoretical analysis and a review of the evidence. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
   Google Scholar
• Miller, S. D., Duncan, B. L., Brown, J., Sparks, J. A., & Claud, D. A. (2003). The outcome rating scale: A preliminary study of the reliability, validity, and feasibility of a brief visual analog measure. Journal of Brief Therapy, 2, 91–100.
   Google Scholar
• Nickerson, R. S. (1998). Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises. Review of general psychology, 2, 175–220. doi: 10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175
   Google Scholar
• Pacini, R., & Epstein, S. (1999). The relation of rational and experiential information processing styles to personality, basic beliefs, and the ratio-bias phenomenon. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(6), 972–987. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.76.6.972
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Persons, J. B., Beckner, V. L., & Tompkins, M. A. (2013). Testing case formulation hypotheses in psychotherapy: Two case examples. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 20(4), 399–409. doi: 10.1016/j.cbpra.2013.03.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Persons, J. B., & Bertagnolli, A. (1999). Inter-rater reliability of cognitive-behavioral case formulations of depression: A replication. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 23(3), 271–283. doi: 10.1023/A:1018791531158
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Persons, J. B., Bostrom, A., & Bertagnolli, A. (1999). Results of randomized controlled trials of cognitive therapy for depression generalize to private practice. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 23(5), 535–548. doi: 10.1023/A:1018724505659
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Posner, K., Brown, G. K., Stanley, B., Brent, D. A., Yershova, K. V., Oquendo, M. A., … Mann, J. J. (2011). The Columbia–suicide severity rating scale: Initial validity and internal consistency findings from three multisite studies with adolescents and adults. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168(12), 1266–1277. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.10111704
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pyszczynski, T., & Greenberg, J. (1987). Self-regulatory perseveration and the depressive self-focusing style: A self-awareness theory of reactive depression. Psychological Bulletin, 102(1), 122–138. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.102.1.122
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radecki, C. M., & Jaccard, J. (1995). Perceptions of knowledge, actual knowledge, and information search behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 31(2), 107–138. doi: 10.1006/jesp.1995.1006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reyna, V. F. (2004). How people make decisions that involve risk: A dual-processes approach. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13(2), 60–66. doi: 10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00275.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rieskamp, J., & Hoffrage, U. (2008). Inferences under time pressure: How opportunity costs affect strategy selection. Acta psychologica, 127, 258–276. doi: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2007.05.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Safran, J. D., & Muran, J. C. (2000). Resolving therapeutic alliance ruptures: Diversity and integration. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 56, 233–243. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4679(200002)56:2<233::AID-JCLP9>3.0.CO;2-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Safran, J. D., & Muran, J. C. (2006). Has the concept of the alliance outlived its usefulness? Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 43, 286–291. doi: 10.1037/0033-3204.43.3.286
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Safran, J. D., Muran, J. C., Samstag, L. W., & Winston, A. (2005). Evaluating alliance-focused intervention for potential treatment failures: A feasibility study and descriptive analysis. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 42, 512–531. doi: 10.1037/0033-3204.42.4.512
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schön, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books.
   Google Scholar
• Skov, R. B., & Sherman, S. J. (1986). Information-gathering processes: Diagnosticity, hypothesis-confirmatory strategies, and perceived hypothesis confirmation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 22(2), 93–121. doi: 10.1016/0022-1031(86)90031-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sloman, S. A. (1996). The empirical case for two systems of reasoning. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 3–22. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.119.1.3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sloman, S. A. (2002). Two systems of reasoning. In T. Gilovich, D. Griffin, & D. Kahneman (Eds.), Heuristics and biases: The psychology of intuitive judgment (pp. 379–98). Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.
   Google Scholar
• Snyder, M., & Swann, W. B. (1978). Hypothesis-testing processes in social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36(11), 1202–1212. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.36.11.1202
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanovich, K. E. (1999). Who is rational? Studies of individual differences in reasoning. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
   Google Scholar
• Stanovich, K. E. (2012). On the distinction between rationality and intelligence: Implications for understanding individual differences in reasoning. In K. Holyoak & R. Morrison (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of thinking and reasoning (pp. 343–365). New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. F. (2000). Individual differences in reasoning: Implications for the rationality debate? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 23(5), 645–665. doi: 10.1017/S0140525X00003435
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stiles, W. B., Shapiro, D. A., & Elliott, R. (1986). Are all psychotherapies equivalent? American Psychologist, 41, 165–180. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.41.2.165
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strasser, J., & Gruber, H. (2004). The role of experience in professional training and development of psychological counsellors. In H. P. A. Boshuizen, R. Bromme, & H. Gruber (Eds.), Professional learning: Gaps and transitions on the way from novice to expert (pp. 11–27). Netherlands: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Strohmer, D. C., Shivy, V. A., & Chiodo, A. L. (1990). Information processing strategies in counselor hypothesis testing: The role of selective memory and expectancy. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 37(4), 465–472. doi: 10.1037/0022-0167.37.4.465
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sundet, R. (2011). Collaboration: Family and therapists’ perspectives of helpful therapy. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 37, 236–249. doi: 10.1111/j.1752-0606.2009.00157.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sundet, R. (2012). Therapist perspectives on the use of feedback on process and outcome: Patient-focused research in practice. Canadian Psychology, 53(2), 122–130. doi: 10.1037/a0027776
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swann, W. B. Jr. (1990). To be adored or to be known: The interplay of self-enhancement and self-verification. In R. M. Sorrentino & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition (Vol. 2, pp. 408–448). New York: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Thomas, R. P., Dougherty, M. R., Sprenger, A. M., & Harbison, J. (2008). Diagnostic hypothesis generation and human judgment. Psychological Review, 115(1), 155–185. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.115.1.155
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson, V. A. (2009). Dual-process theories: A metacognitive perspective. In J. Evans & K. Frankish (Eds.), In two minds: Dual processes and beyond (pp. 171–196). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Thompson, V. A. (2010). Towards a dual-process model of conditional inference. In M. Oaksford (Ed.), The psychology of conditionals. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Thompson, V. A., Prowse Turner, J. A., & Pennycook, G. (2011). Intuition, metacognition, and reason. Cognitive Psychology, 63, 107–140. doi: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2011.06.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tracey, T. J., Wampold, B. E., Lichtenberg, J. W., & Goodyear, R. K. (2014). Expertise in psychotherapy: An elusive goal? American Psychologist, 69(3), 218–229. doi: 10.1037/a0035099
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trope, Y. (1986). Identification and inferential processes in dispositional attribution. Psychological Review, 93(3), 239–257. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.93.3.239
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trope, Y., & Bassok, M. (1982). Confirmatory and diagnosing strategies in social information gathering. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43(1), 22–34. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.43.1.22
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trope, Y., & Bassok, M. (1983). Information-gathering strategies in hypothesis-testing. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19(6), 560–576. doi: 10.1016/0022-1031(83)90016-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trope, Y., & Liberman, A. (1996). Social hypothesis testing: Cognitive and motivational mechanisms. In E. T. Higgins & A. W. Kruglanski (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 239–270). New York: Gilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Trope, Y., & Thompson, E. P. (1997). Looking for truth in all the wrong places? Asymmetric search of individuating information about stereotyped group members. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology; Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(2), 229–241. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.73.2.229
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weber, E. U., Böckenholt, U., Hilton, D. J., & Wallace, B. (1993). Determinants of diagnostic hypothesis generation: Effects of information, base rates, and experience. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19, 1151–1164.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webster, D. M., & Kruglanski, A. W. (1994). Individual differences in need for cognitive closure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 1049–1062. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.67.6.1049
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wegner, D. M. (2003). Thought suppression and mental control. In L. Nadel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of cognitive science (pp. 395–397). London: Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Wegner, D. M., & Bargh, J. A. (1998). Control and automaticity in social life. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (4th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 446–496). New York: McGraw–Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Weisz, J. R., Chorpita, B. F., Frye, A., Ng, M. Y., Lau, N., Bearman, S. K.,  … Hoagwood, K. E. (2011). Youth top problems: Using idiographic, consumer-guided assessment to identify treatment needs and to track change during psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79, 369–380. doi: 10.1037/a0023307
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weisz, J. R., Chorpita, B. F., Palinkas, L. A., Schoenwald, S. K., Miranda, J., Bearman, S. K., … Research Network on Youth Mental Health. (2012). Testing standard and modular designs for psychotherapy treating depression, anxiety, and conduct problems in youth: A randomized effectiveness trial. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69, 274–282. doi: 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.147
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson, T. D., & Brekke, N. (1994). Mental contamination and mental correction: Unwanted influences on judgments and evaluations. Psychological Bulletin, 116(1), 117–142. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.116.1.117
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witteman, C. M. L., & Tollenaar, M. S. (2012). Remembering and diagnosing clients: Does experience matter? Memory, 20(3), 266–276. doi: 10.1080/09658211.2012.654799
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witteman, C. M. L., & Van den Bercken, J. H. L. (2007). Intermediate effects in psychodiagnostic classification. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 23, 56–61. doi: 10.1027/1015-5759.23.1.56
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zuckerman, M., Knee, C. R., Hodgins, H. S., & Miyake, K. (1995). Hypothesis confirmation: The joint effect of positive test strategy and acquiescence response set. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 52–60.
   Google Scholar