Does Scary Matter?: Testing the Effectiveness of New National Weather Service Tornado Warning Messages

References

• Anderson , W. A. ( 1969 ). Disaster warning and communication processes in two communities . Journal of Communication , 19 , 92 – 104 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Associated Press . ( 2012 , April 16 ). Tornado warnings helped save lives in Midwest. New York Daily News. Retrieved from http://www.nydailynews.com
   Google Scholar
• Atwood , L. E. , & Major , A. M. ( 1998 ). Exploring the “cry wolf” hypothesis . International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters , 16 , 279 – 302 .
   Google Scholar
• Auld , H. ( 2008 ). Adaptation by design: The impact of changing climate on infrastructure . Journal of Public Works and Infrastructure , 1 , 276 – 288 .
   Google Scholar
• Bateman , J. M. , & Edwards , B. ( 2002 ). Gender and evacuation: A closer look at why women are more likely to evacuate for hurricanes . Natural Hazards Review , 3 , 107 – 117 .
   Google Scholar
• Beaujon , A. ( 2012 , September 27 ). Pew: Half of Americans get news digitally, topping newspapers, radio. Poynter. Retrieved from http://www.poynter.org/
   Google Scholar
• Bracken , C. C. ( 2006 ). Perceived source credibility of local television news: The impact of television form and presence . Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 50 , 723 – 741 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broad , G. M. , Ball-Rokeach , S. J. , Ognyanova , K. , Stokes , B. , Picasso , T. , & Villanueva , G. ( 2013 ). Understanding communication ecologies to bridge communication research and community action . Journal of Applied Communication Research , 41 , 325 – 345 . doi: 10.1080/00909882.2013.844848
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cosmides , L. , & Tooby , J. ( 2000 ). Evolutionary psychology and the emotions . In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions ( , 2nd ed. , pp. 91 – 115 ). New York , NY : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Diffenbaugh , N. S. , Scherer , M. , & Trapp , R. J. ( 2013 ). Robust increases in severe thunderstorm environments in response to greenhouse forcing. In Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . doi: 10.1073/pnas.1307758110
   Google Scholar
• Drabek , T. E. , & Hoetmer , G. J. ( 1991 ). Emergency management: Principles and practice for local government . Washington , DC : International City Management Association .
   Google Scholar
• Drabek , T. E. , & Key , W. H. ( 1984 ). Conquering disaster: Family recovery and long-term consequences . New York , NY : Irvington .
   Google Scholar
• Duval , T. S. , & Mulilis , J. P. ( 1999 ). A Person‐Relative‐to‐Event (PrE) approach to negative threat appeals and earthquake preparedness: A field study . Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 29 , 495 – 516 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Field , C. B. , Barros , V. , Stocker , T. F. , Dahe , Q. , Dokken , D. J. , Ebi , K. L. , …  Midgley , P. M. ( 2012 ). Managing the risks of extreme events and disasters to advance climate change adaptation: Special report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . New York , NY : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Fischer , H. W. ( 1996 ). What emergency management officials should know to enhance mitigation and effective disaster response . Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management , 4 , 208 – 217 .
   Google Scholar
• Houston , J. B. ( 2012 ). Public disaster mental/behavioral health communication: Intervention across disaster phases . Journal of Emergency Management , 10 , 283 – 292 . doi: 10.5055/jem.2012.0106
   Google Scholar
• Lear , M. ( 2011 , September 21 ), National Weather Service preparing to test new severe weather warning products (audio). Missourinet. Retrieved from http://www.missourinet.com/2011/09/21/national-weather-service-preparing-to-test-new-severe-weather-warning-products-audio/
   Google Scholar
• Letner , J. ( 2011 , May 29 ). “A fist coming out of the sky”: Six miles of terror. The Joplin Globe. Retrieved from http://www.joplinglobe.com/
   Google Scholar
• Lin , C. A. , & Jeffres , L. W. ( 2001 ). Comparing distinctions and similarities across websites of newspapers, radio stations, and television stations . Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly , 78 , 555 – 573 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipkus , I. M. , & Hollands , J. G. ( 1999 ). The visual communication of risk . JNCI Monographs , 1999 , 149 – 163 .
   Google Scholar
• Meyer , R. ( 2006 ). “Why we under-prepare for hazards.” In R. J. Daniels , D. F. Kettl , & H. Kunreuther (Eds.), On risk and disaster: Lessons from Hurricane Katrina (pp. 153 – 174 ). Philadelphia , PA : University of Pennsylvania Press .
   Google Scholar
• Mileti , D. S. (1975). Natural hazard warning systems in the United States: A research assessment . Boulder , CO : Institute of Behavioral Science University of Colorado.
   Google Scholar
• Morrow , B. H. ( 1999 ). Identifying and mapping community vulnerability . Disasters , 23 , 1 – 18 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muthusamy , N. , Levine , T. R. , & Weber , R. ( 2009 ). Scaring the already scared: Some problems with HIV/AIDS fear appeals in Namibia . Journal of Communication , 59 , 317 – 344 . doi: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2009.01418.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Weather Service (NWS) . ( 2011 , July ). NWS Central Region service assessment: Joplin, Missouri, tornado – May 22, 2011. Retrieved from http://www.nws.noaa.gov/os/assessments/pdfs/Joplin_tornado.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Novy , C. , Edwards , R. , Imy , D. , & Goss , S. ( 2008 , November 13 ). Severe weather watches. Storm Prediction Center. Retrieved from http://www.spc.noaa.gov/misc/about.html#Severe Weather Watches
   Google Scholar
• Perse , E. M. ( 2001 ). Media effects and society . Hillsdale , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Peters , G.-J. Y. , Ruiter , R. A. C. , & Kok , G. ( 2012 ). Threatening communication: A critical re-analysis and a revised meta-analytic test of fear appeal theory . Health Psychology Review , 7 , S8 – S31 . doi: 10.1080/17437199.2012.703527
   Google Scholar
• Quarantelli , E. L. ( 1991 ). Different types of disasters and planning implications. Disaster Research Center. Retrieved from http://dspace.udel.edu:8080/dspace/handle/19716/541
   Google Scholar
• Reynolds , B. , & Seeger , M. W. ( 2005 ). Crisis and emergency risk communication as an integrative model . Journal of Health Communication , 10 , 43 – 55 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robertson , C. , & Severson , K. ( 2011 , April 28 ). South assess the toll after a deadly barrage of tornadoes. New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/
   Google Scholar
• Ropeik , D. , & Gray , G. ( 2002 ). Risk: A practical guide for deciding what's really safe and what's really dangerous in the world around you . Boston , MA : Houghton-Mifflin .
   Google Scholar
• Sellnow , T. L. , Sellnow , D. D. , Lane , D. R. , & Littlefield , R. S. ( 2012 ). The value of instructional communication in crisis situations: Restoring order to chaos . Risk Analysis , 32 , 633 – 643 . doi: 10.1111/j.1539-6924.2011.01634.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soroptimist International . ( 2013 , March 3 ). Reaching out to women when disaster strikes. Retrieved from https://www.soroptimist.org/whitepapers/WhitePaperDocs/WPReachingWomenDisaster.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Spence , P. R. , Lachlan , K. A. , & Griffin , D. R. ( 2007 ). Crisis communication, race, and natural disasters . Journal of Black Studies , 37 , 539 – 554 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thornton , J. , Rossiter , J. , & White , L. ( 2000 ). The persuasive effectiveness of varying levels of fear appeals: an anti-speeding advertising experiment. In Proceedings of the Australian and New Zealand Marketing Academy Conference (ANZMAC) visioning marketing for the 21st century: Facing the challenge (pp. 1279–1283). Melbourne, Australia.
   Google Scholar
• Tierney , K. ( 2006 ). Social inequality, hazards, and disasters . In R. J. Daniels , D. F. Kettl , & H. Kunreuther (Eds.), On risk and disaster: Lessons from Hurricane Katrina (pp. 109 – 128 ). Philadelphia , PA : University of Pennsylvania Press .
   Google Scholar
• Tierney , K. , Bevc , C. , & Kuligowski , E. ( 2006 ). Metaphors matter: Disaster myths, media frames, and their consequences in Hurricane Katrina . Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , 604 , 57 – 81 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wenger , D. E. ( 1985 ). Mass media and disasters. (Preliminary Paper #98) . Newark , DE : University of Delaware, Disaster Research Center .
   Google Scholar
• Wilkins , L. , Steffens , M. , Thorson , E. , Kyle , G. , Collins , K. , & Vultee , F. ( 2012 ). Reporting disaster on deadline: A handbook for students and professionals . New York , NY : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Witte , K. ( 1992 ). Putting the fear back into fear appeals: The extended parallel process model . Communication Monographs , 59 , 329 – 349 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witte , K. , Meyer , G. , & Martel , D. ( 2000 ). Effective health risk messages . Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Woodin , D. ( 2011 , November 12 ). Error cited; tornado deaths trimmed to 161. The Joplin Globe. Retrieved from http://www.joplinglobe.com/
   Google Scholar