How “Face” Matters: Chinese Corporate Tourists in Australia

REFERENCES

• Bailey, M. (1998). Outbound China. EIU Travel & Tourism Analyst, 3, 19–39.
   Google Scholar
• Baxter, J., & Eyles, J. (1997). Evaluating qualitative research in social geography: Establishing ‘rigour’ in interview analysis. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 22, 505–525. doi:10.1111/j.0020-2754.1997.00505.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bedford, O. (2011). Guanxi-building in the workplace: A dynamic process model of working and backdoor guanxi. Journal of Business Ethics, 104(1), 149–158. doi:10.1007/s10551-011-0895-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bond, M. H., & Lee, P. W. H. (1981). Face saving in Chinese culture: A discussion and experimental study of Hong Kong students. In R. P. L. Lee & A. Y. C. King (Eds.), Social life and development in Hong Kong (pp. 289–304). Hong Kong: Chinese University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bond, R., & Smith, P. B. (1996). Culture and conformity: A meta-analysis of studies using Asch’s (1952b, 1956) line judgement task. Psychological Bulletin, 119(1), 111–137.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buttery, E. A., & Wong, Y. H. (1999). The development of a guanxi framework. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 17(3), 147–154.
   Google Scholar
• Caelli, K., Ray, L., & Mill, J. (2008). ‘Clear as mud’: Toward greater clarity in generic qualiative research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 2(2), 1–13.
   Google Scholar
• Cai, L. A., Lehto, X. Y., & O’Leary, J. (2001). Profiling the U.S.-bound Chinese travelers by purpose of trip. Journal of Hospitality & Leisure Marketing, 7(4), 3–16. doi:10.1300/J150v07n04_02
   Google Scholar
• Carson, D., Gilmore, A., Perry, C., & Gronhaug, K. (2001). Qualitative marketing research. London: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Casimir, G., Waldman, D. A., Bartram, T., & Yang, S. (2006). Trust and the relationship between leadership and follower performance: Opening the black box in Australia and China. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 12(3), 68–84. doi:10.1177/107179190601200305
   Google Scholar
• Chan, R. Y.-K., Cheng, L. T. W., & Szeto, W. F. (2002). The dynamics of guanxi and ethics for Chinese executives. Journal of Business Ethics, 41(4), 327–336.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan, Y. W. (2006). Coming of age of the Chinese tourists: The emergence of non-Western tourism and host-guest interactions in Vietnam’s border tourism. Tourist Studies, 6, 187–213. doi:10.1177/1468797607076671
   Google Scholar
• Chang, H.-C., & Holt, G. R. (1991). More than relationship: Chinese interaction and the principle of Kuan-hsi. Communication Quarterly, 39(3), 251–271. doi:10.1080/01463379109369802
   Google Scholar
• Chen, X.-P., & Chen, C. C. (2004). On the intricacies of the Chinese guanxi: A process model of guanxi development. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 21(3), 305–324.
   Google Scholar
• Chen, X. P., Eberly, M. B., Chiang, T. J., Farh, J. L., & Cheng, B. S. (2014). Affective trust in Chinese leaders: Linking paternalistic leadership to employee performance. Journal of Management, 40(3), 796–819.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crompton, J. L. (1981). Dimensions of the social group role in pleasure vacations. Annals of Tourism Research, 8(4), 550–568. doi:10.1016/0160-7383(81)90041-4
   Google Scholar
• Davies, H., Leung, T. K. P., Luk, S. T. K., & Wong, Y. H. (1995). The benefits of “guanxi”: The value of relationships in developing the Chinese market. Industrial Marketing Management, 24(3), 207–214.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.). (1998). Collecting and interpreting qualitative materials. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Devonshire-Ellis, C., Scott, A., & Woollard, S. (Eds.). (2011). Negotiating Strategy in China. In Mergers & acquisitions in China (pp. 63–70). Berlin: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Dorn, J. A. (1998). China’s future: Market socialism or market Taoism? Cato Journal, 18(1), 131–146.
   Google Scholar
• Fang, T., & Kriz, A. (2000, September 7–9). Cross-cultural challenges to the IMP paradigm: Evidence from Chinese markets. Paper presented at the IMP 16th Annual International Conference, Bath.
   Google Scholar
• Gao, J., Arnulf, J. K., & Henning, K. (2011). Western leadership development and Chinese managers: Exploring the need for contextualization. Scandinavian Journal of Management, 27(1), 55–65. doi:10.1016/j.scaman.2010.11.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. New York, NY: Anchor Books.
   Google Scholar
• Gong, W. (2002). Chinese consumer behavior: A cultural framework and implications. Journal of American Academy of Business, Cambridge, 3(1/2), 373–381.
   Google Scholar
• Green, J., Willis, K., Hughes, E., Small, R., Welch, N., Gibbs, L., & Daly, J. (2007). Generating best evidence from qualitative research: The role of data analysis. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 31(6), 545–550. doi:10.1111/j.1753-6405.2007.00141.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gubrium, J. F., & Holstein, J. A. (2008). Narrative ethnography. In S. N. Hesse-Biber & P. Leavy (Eds.), Handbook of emergent methods (pp. 241–264). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gubrium, J. F., & Holstein, J. A. (2009). Analyzing narrative reality. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Han, Y., & Altman, Y. (2009). Supervisor and subordinate guanxi: A grounded investigation in the People’s Republic of China. Journal of Business Ethics, 88, 91–104. doi:10.1007/s10551-008-9827-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanqin, Z. Q., & Lam, T. (1999). An analysis of Mainland Chinese visitors’ motivations to visit Hong Kong. Tourism Management, 20, 587–594. doi:10.1016/S0261-5177(99)00028-X
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• He, M., & Zhang, S. (2011). Re-conceptualizing the Chinese concept of face from a face-sensitive perspective: A case study of a modern Chinese TV drama. Journal of Pragmatics, 43(9), 2360–2372. doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2011.03.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ho, D. Y. F. (1976). On the concept of face. American Journal of Sociology, 81(4), 867–884. doi:10.1086/226145
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work related values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Hofstede, G., & Hofstede, G. J. (2005). Cultures and organisations: Software of the mind. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Hogg, M. A. (1992). The social psychology of group cohesivenss: From attraction to social identity. London: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
   Google Scholar
• Holloway, I., & Wheeler, S. (2002). Qualitative research in nursing (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Hu, H. C. (1944). The Chinese concepts of ‘face’. American Anthropologist, 46, 45–64. doi:10.1525/aa.1944.46.1.02a00040
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang, Q., Davison, R. M., & Gu, J. (2011). The impact of trust, guanxi orientation and face on the intention of Chinese employees and managers to engage in peer-to-peer tacit and explicit knowledge sharing. Information Systems Journal, 21(6), 557–577. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2575.2010.00361.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang, S., & Hsu, C. H. C. (2005). Mainland Chinese residents’ perceptions and motivations of visiting Hong Kong: Evidence from focus group interviews. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 10(2), 191–205. doi:10.1080/10941660500135977
   Google Scholar
• Hui, V. K.-Y., & Bond, M. H. (2009). Targets’ face loss, motivations, and forgiveness following relational transgression: Comparing Chinese and US cultures. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 26, 123–140. doi:10.1177/0265407508100312
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hwang, K.-K. (1987). Face and favor: The Chinese power game. The American Journal of Sociology, 92(4), 944–974. doi:10.1086/228588
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hwang, K.-K. (2012a). The construction of the face and favor model. Foundations of Chinese Psychology, 69–98. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-1439-1_4
   Google Scholar
• Hwang, K.-K. (2012b). Face and morality in confucian society. Foundations of Chinese Psychology, 265–295. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-1439-1_10
   Google Scholar
• Jacobs, J. B. (1979). A preliminary model of particularistic ties in Chinese political alliances: Kanching and Kuan-hsi in a rural Taiwanese township. China Quarterly, 78, 237–273.
   Google Scholar
• Jang, S., Yu, L., & Pearson, T. (2003). Chinese travellers to the United States: A comparison of business travel and visiting friends and relatives. Tourism Geographies, 5(1), 87–108. doi:10.1080/1461668032000034097
   Google Scholar
• Jennings, G. (2010). Tourism research (2nd ed.). Milton, QLD: John Wiley & Sons.
   Google Scholar
• King, B., Dwyer, L., & Prideaux, B. (2006). An evaluation of unethical business practices in Australia’s China inbound tourism market. International Journal of Tourism Research, 8, 127–142. doi:10.1002/jtr.563
   Google Scholar
• Ko, T. G. (2000). The issues and implications of escorted shopping tours in a tourist destination region: The case study of Korean package tourists in Australia. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 8(3), 71–80. doi:10.1300/J073v08n03_04
   Google Scholar
• Kriz, A., & Fang, T. (2003, September 4–6). Interpersonal trust in Chinese relational networks: Moving from Guanxi to Xinren. IMP 19th annual international conference, Lugano.
   Google Scholar
• Kwek, A., & Lee, Y.-S. (2010). Chinese tourists and Confucianism. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 15(2), 129–141. doi:10.1080/10941661003629946
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leung, K. (2010). Beliefs in Chinese culture. In M. H. Bond (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of Chinese psychology (pp. 221–240). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Leung, K., Koch, P. T., & Lu, L. (2002). A dualistic model of harmony and its implications for conflict management in Asia. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 19(2,3), 201–220.
   Google Scholar
• Leung, T. K. P., & Chan, R. Y.-K. (2003). Face, favour and positioning – A Chinese power game. European Journal of Marketing, 37(11/12), 1575–1598. doi:10.1108/03090560310495366
   Google Scholar
• Leung, T. K. P., Wong, Y. H., & Wong, S. (1996). A study of Hong Kong businessmen’s perceptions of the role ‘guanxi’ in the People’s Republic of China. Journal of Business Ethics, 15(7), 749–758.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levy, S. E., & Getz, D. (2011). An exploration of social stimuli influencing the student sightseeing tour experience. Tourism Review International, 15(4), 297–311. doi:10.3727/154427212X13369577826708
   Google Scholar
• Li, C. (2006). The Confucian ideal of harmony. Philosophy East & West, 56(4), 583–603.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, J., & Wright, P. C. (2000). Guanxi and the realities of career development: A Chinese perspective. Career Development International, 5, 369–378. doi:10.1108/13620430010379920
   Google Scholar
• Littrell, R. F. (2002). Desirable leadership behaviours of multi-cultural managers in China. Journal of Management Development, 21(1), 5–74. doi:10.1108/02621710210413190
   Google Scholar
• Luo, Y. (1997). Guanxi: Principles, philosophies, and implications. Human Systems Management, 16(1), 43–51.
   Google Scholar
• Mok, C., & DeFranco, A. L. (2000). Chinese cultural values: Their implications for travel and tourism marketing. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 8(2), 99–114. doi:10.1300/J073v08n02_07
   Google Scholar
• National Bureau of Statistics of China. (2010). China statistical yearbook 2010. Retrieved August 12, 2011, from http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2010/indexeh.htm
   Google Scholar
• Neuman, W. L. (2003). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
   Google Scholar
• Palmer, C. (2001). Ethnography: A research method in practice. The International Journal of Tourism Research, 3(4), 301–312. doi:10.1002/jtr.332
   Google Scholar
• Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Peng, M. W. (1997). The importance of guanzi (connections) in China. In I. Chow, N. Holbert, L. Kelly, & J. Yu (Eds.), Business strategy: An Asia-Pacific focus. New York, NY: Prentice Hall.
   Google Scholar
• Phillimore, J., & Goodson, L. (Eds.). (2004). Qualitative research in tourism: Ontologies, epistemologies and methodologies. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Prideaux, B., King, B., Dwyer, L., & Hobson, P. (2006). The hidden costs of cheap group tours – A case study of business practices in Australia. In J. S. Chen (Ed.), Avances in hospitality and leisure (Vol. 2, pp. 51–71). Amsterdam: Elsevier JAI. doi:10.1016/S1745-3542(05)02003-5
   Google Scholar
• Qian, W., Razzaque, M. A., & Keng, K. A. (2007). Chinese cultural values and gift-giving behavior. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 24(4), 214–228. doi:10.1108/07363760710756002
   Google Scholar
• Qu, H., & Li, I. (1997). The characteristics and satisfaction of Mainland Chinese visitors to Hong Kong. Journal of Travel Research, 35(4), 37–41.
   Google Scholar
• Quiroga, I. (1990). Characteristics of package tours in Europe. Annals of Tourism Research, 17, 185–207. doi:10.1016/0160-7383(90)90083-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramirez, S. (2012). Motivations and constraints of Cal Poly RPTA students to participate in international group. San Luis Obispo: California Polytechnic State University.
   Google Scholar
• Redding, G., & Ng, M. (1983). The role of ‘face’ in the organisational perceptions of Chinese managers. International Studies of Management and Organisation, 13(3), 92–123.
   Google Scholar
• Reid, S. A., & Hogg, M. A. (2005). Uncertainty reduction, self-enhancement, and ingroup identification. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(6), 804–817. doi:10.1177/0146167204271708
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reisinger, Y., & Turner, L. W. (1998). Cultural differences between Mandarin speaking tourists and Australian hosts and their impact on cross-cultural tourist-host interaction. Journal of Business Research, 42(2), 175–187. doi:10.1016/S0148-2963(97)00107-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reisinger, Y., & Turner, L. W. (2002). The determination of shopping satisfaction of Japanese tourists visiting Hawaii and the Gold Coast compared. Journal of Travel Research, 41(2), 167–176. doi:10.1177/004728702237417
   Google Scholar
• Ryan, C., & Mo, X. (2002). Chinese visitors to New Zealand- demographics and perceptions. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 8(1), 13–27. doi:10.1177/135676670200800103
   Google Scholar
• Silverman, D. (2001). Interpreting qualitative data: Methods for analyzing talk, text and interaction (2nd ed.). London: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Snell, R. (1999). Obedience to authority and ethical dilemmas in Hong Kong companies. Business Ethics Quarterly, 9(3), 507–526. doi:10.2307/3857514
   Google Scholar
• Su, C., & Littlefield, J. E. (2001). Entering guanxi: A business ethical dilemma in Mainland China. Journal of Business Ethics, 33, 199–210. doi:10.1023/A:1017570803846
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szeto, W. F., Wright, P., & Cheng, E. (2006). Business networking in the Chinese context: Its role in the formation of guanxi, social capital and ethical foundations. Management Research News, 29(7), 425–438. doi:10.1108/01409170610690880
   Google Scholar
• Tan, H. H. (2005). Understanding interpersonal trust in a confucian-influenced society: An exploratory study. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 5(2), 197–212. doi:10.1177/1470595805054493
   Google Scholar
• Tjosvold, D., Hui, C., & Sun, H. (2004). Can Chinese discuss conflicts openly? Field and experimental studies of face dynamics in China. Group Decision and Negotiation, 13, 351–373. doi:10.1023/B:GRUP.0000042892.76805.83
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tourism Research Australia. (2011). China inbound and outbound travel: Snapshots 2011. Retrieved August 12, 2011, from http://www.ret.gov.au/tourism/Documents/tra/Snapshots%20and%20Factsheets/2011/China-Snapshot-July%202011.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Wilkins, H. (2011). Souvenirs: What and why we buy. Journal of Travel Research, 50(3), 239–247. doi:10.1177/0047287510362782
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson, R. W. (1970). Learning to be Chinese: The political socialsation of children in Taiwan. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Wong, Y. H., & Chan, R. Y.-K. (1999). Relationship marketing in China: Guanxi, favouritism and adaptation. Journal of Business Ethics, 22(2), 107–118.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong, Y. H., & Tam, J. L. M. (2000). Mapping relationships in China: Guanxi dynamic approach. Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, 15(1), 57–70.
   Google Scholar
• Wu, M., Huang, X., & Chan, S. C. H. (2012). The influencing mechanisms of paternalistic leadership in Mainland China. Asia Pacific Business Review, 18(4), 631–648. doi:10.1080/13602381.2012.690940
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu, M., Huang, X., Li, C., & Liu, W. (2012). Perceived interactional justice and trust-in-supervisor as mediators for paternalistic leadership. Management and Organization Review, 8(1), 97–121. doi:10.1111/j.1740-8784.2011.00283.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xin, K. K., & Pearce, J. L. (1996). Guanxi: Connections as substitutes for formal institutional support. Academy of Management Journal, 39(6), 1641–1658. doi:10.2307/257072
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yau, O. H. M. (1994). Consumer behaviour in China: Customer satisfaction and cultural values. Cornwall: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Yau, O. H. M. (2000). Chinese cultural values: Their dimensions and marketing implications. In O. H. M. Yau & H. C. Steele (Eds.), China business: Challenges in the 21st century (pp. 133–150). Hong Kong: The Chinese University of Hong Kong.
   Google Scholar
• Yau, O. H. M., & Steele, H. C. (Eds.). (2000). China business: Challenges in the 21st century. Hong Kong: The Chinese University of Hong Kong.
   Google Scholar
• Yen, D. A., & Barnes, B. R. (2011). Analyzing stage and duration of Anglo-Chinese business-to-business relationships. Industrial Marketing Management, 40(3), 346–357. doi:10.1016/j.indmarman.2010.08.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, A. Y., Tsui, A. S., & Wang, D. X. (2011). Leadership behaviors and group creativity in Chinese organizations: The role of group processes. The Leadership Quarterly, 22(5), 851–862. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.07.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, H. Q., & Heung, V. C. S. (2002). The emergence of the mainland Chinese outbound travel market and its implications for tourism marketing. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 8(1), 7–12. doi:10.1177/135676670200800102
   Google Scholar
• Zhang, Q. H., & Qu, H. (1996). The trends of China’s outbound travel to Hong Kong and their implications. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 2(4), 373–381. doi:10.1177/135676679600200408
   Google Scholar