29
Views
17
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
REGULAR ARTICLES

Treatment Strategies for Co-Occurring ADHD and Substance Use Disorders

, MD, , MD & , MD
Pages 45-56 | Received 29 Aug 2006, Accepted 28 Sep 2006, Published online: 10 Jul 2009

REFERENCES

  • Olfson M. Diagnosing mental disorders in office-based pediatric practice. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 1992;13:363–365.
  • Barbaresi WJ, Katusic SK, Colligan RC, , et al How common is attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? Incidence in a population-based birth cohort in Rochester, Minn. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2002;156:217–224.
  • Adler L, Cohen J. Diagnosis and evaluation of adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2004;27:187–201.
  • Biederman J, Mick E, Faraone SV. Age-dependent decline of symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: impact of remission definition and symptom type. Am J Psychiatry. 2000;157:816–818.
  • Rasmussen P, Gillberg C. Natural outcome of ADHD with developmental coordination disorder at age 22 years: a controlled, longitudinal, community-based study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39:1424–1431.
  • Barkley RA, Fischer M, Smallish L, Fletcher K. The persistence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder into young adulthood as a function of reporting source and definition of disorder. J Abnorm Psychol. 2002;111:279–289.
  • Kessler RC, Adler LA, Barkley R, , et al Patterns and predictors of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder persistence into adulthood: results from the national comorbidity survey replication. Biol Psychiatry. 2005;57:1442–1451.
  • Kessler RC, Adler L, Barkley R, , et al The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163:716–723.
  • Kessler RC, Chiu WT, Demler O, Merikangas KR, Walters EE. Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62:617–627.
  • Weiss M, Murray C. Assessment and management of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults. CMAJ. 2003;168:715–722.
  • Murphy K, Barkley RA. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder adults: comorbidities and adaptive impairments. Compr Psychiatry. 1996;37:393–401.
  • Kessler RC, Adler L, Ames M, , et al The prevalence and effects of adult attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder on work performance in a nationally representative sample of workers. J Occup Environ Med. 2005;47:565–572.
  • Regier DA, Farmer ME, Rae DS, , et al Comorbidity of mental disorders with alcohol and other drug abuse. Results from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area (ECA) Study. JAMA. 1990;264:2511–2518.
  • Kessler RC, McGonagle KA, Zhao S, , et al Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States. Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1994;51:8–19.
  • Grant BF, Harford TC. Comorbidity between DSM-IV alcohol use disorders and major depression: results of a national survey. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1995;39:197–206.
  • Grant BF, Stinson FS, Dawson DA, , et al Prevalence and co-occurrence of substance use disorders and independent mood and anxiety disorders: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2004;61:807–816.
  • Levin FR, Evans SM, Kleber HD. Prevalence of adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder among cocaine abusers seeking treatment. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1998;52:15–25.
  • Clure C, Brady KT, Saladin ME, Johnson D, Waid R, Rittenbury M. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and substance use: symptom pattern and drug choice. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 1999;25:441–448.
  • Schubiner H, Tzelepis A, Milberger S, , et al Prevalence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and conduct disorder among substance abusers. J Clin Psychiatry. 2000;61:244–251.
  • Halikas JA, Meller J, Morse C, Lyttle MD. Predicting substance abuse in juvenile offenders: attention deficit disorder versus aggressivity. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 1990;21:49–55.
  • Thompson LL, Riggs PD, Mikulich SK, Crowley TJ. Contribution of ADHD symptoms to substance problems and delinquency in conduct-disordered adolescents. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 1996;24:325–347.
  • DeMilio L. Psychiatric syndromes in adolescent substance abusers. Am J Psychiatry. 1989;146:1212–1214.
  • Berkson J. Limitations of the application of fourfold table analyses to hospital data. Biometrics Bulletin. 1946;2:47–53.
  • Greenhill LL, Halperin JM, Abikoff H. Stimulant medications. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1999;38:503–512.
  • Shenker A. The mechanism of action of drugs used to treat attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: focus on catecholamine receptor pharmacology. Adv Pediatr. 1992;39:337–382.
  • Schubiner H, Saules KK, Arfken CL, , et al Double-blind placebo-controlled trial of methylphenidate in the treatment of adult ADHD patients with comorbid cocaine dependence. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 2002;10:286–294.
  • Greenhill LL, Swanson JM, Steinhoff K, , et al A pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic study comparing a single morning dose of Adderall to twice-daily dosing in children with ADHD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2003;42:1234–1241.
  • Ebstein RP, Nemanov L, Klotz I, Gritsenko I, Belmaker RH. Additional evidence for an association between the dopamine D4 receptor (D4DR) exon III repeat polymorphism and the human personality trait of Novelty Seeking. Mol Psychiatry. 1997;2:472–477.
  • LaHoste GJ, Swanson JM, Wigal SB, , et al Dopamine D4 receptor gene polymorphism is associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Mol Psychiatry. 1996;1:121–124.
  • Cook EH, Jr., Stein MA, Krasowski MD, , et al Association of attention-deficit disorder and the dopamine transporter gene. Am J Hum Genet. 1995;56:993–998.
  • Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Fowler JS, Ding YS. Imaging the effects of methylphenidate on brain dopamine: new model on its therapeutic actions for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2005;57:1410–1415.
  • Giedd JN, Blumenthal J, Molloy E, Castellanos FX. Brain imaging of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Ann NY Acad Sci. 2001;931:33–49.
  • Bush G, Frazier JA, Rauch SL, , et al Anterior cingulate cortex dysfunction in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder revealed by fMRI and the Counting Stroop. Biol Psychiatry. 1999;45:1542–1552.
  • Solanto MV. Neuropsychopharmacological mechanisms of stimulant drug action in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a review and integration. Behav Brain Res. 1998;94:127–152.
  • Volkow ND, Wang G, Fowler JS, , et al Therapeutic doses of oral methylphenidate significantly increase extracellular dopamine in the human brain. J Neurosci. 2001;21:RC121.
  • Kiyatkin EA, Rebec GV. Dopaminergic modulation of glutamate-induced excitations of neurons in the neostriatum and nucleus accumbens of awake, unrestrained rats. J Neurophysiol. 1996;75:142–153.
  • Volkow ND, Swanson JM. Variables that affect the clinical use and abuse of methylphenidate in the treatment of ADHD. Am J Psychiatry. 2003;160:1909–1918.
  • Kalivas PW, Volkow ND. The neural basis of addiction: a pathology of motivation and choice. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162:1403–1413.
  • Wilens TE, Faraone SV, Biederman J, Gunawardene S. Does stimulant therapy of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder beget later substance abuse? A meta-analytic review of the literature. Pediatrics. 2003;111:179–185.
  • Ernst M, Luckenbaugh DA, Moolchan ET, , et al Behavioral predictors of substance-use initiation in adolescents with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics. 2006;117:2030–2039.
  • Molina BS, Pelham WE, Jr. Childhood predictors of adolescent substance use in a longitudinal study of children with ADHD. J Abnorm Psychol. 2003;112:497–507.
  • McGough JJ, Barkley RA. Diagnostic controversies in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2004;161:1948–1956.
  • American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2000.
  • Milin R, Loh E, Chow J, Wilson A. Assessment of symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults with substance use disorders. Psychiatr Serv. 1997;48:1378–1380,1395.
  • Mannuzza S, Klein RG, Klein DF, Bessler A, Shrout P. Accuracy of adult recall of childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2002;159:1882–1888.
  • First MB, Spitzer RL, Gibbon M, Williams JBW. Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders. Patient ed., SCID-I/P, Version 2.0. New York: New York State Psychiatric Institute, Biometrics Research Department; 1995.
  • Conners CK, Erhardt JN, Epstein D, Parker JDA, Sitarenios G, Sparrow E. Self-rating of ADHD symptoms in adults: I. Factor structure and normative data. J Atten Disord. 1999;3:141–151.
  • DuPaul G. ADHD Rating Scale-IV: Checklists, Norms, and Clinical Interpretation. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 1998.
  • Swanson J. SNAP-IV Scale. Irvine, Calif.: University of California Child Development Center; 1994.
  • Mannuzza S, Klein RG. Long-term prognosis in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2000;9:711–726.
  • Wilens TE, Biederman J, Mick E. Does ADHD affect the course of substance abuse? Findings from a sample of adults with and without ADHD. Am J Addict. 1998;7:156–163.
  • Carroll KM, Rounsaville BJ. History and significance of childhood attention deficit disorder in treatment-seeking cocaine abusers. Compr Psychiatry. 1993;34:75–82.
  • Wise BK, Cuffe SP, Fischer T. Dual diagnosis and successful participation of adolescents in substance abuse treatment. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2001;21:161–165.
  • White AM, Jordan JD, Schroeder KM, , et al Predictors of relapse during treatment and treatment completion among marijuana-dependent adolescents in an intensive outpatient substance abuse program. Subst Abuse. 2004;25:53–59.
  • Levin FR, Evans SM, Vosburg SK, Horton T, Brooks D, Ng J. Impact of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and other psychopathology on treatment retention among cocaine abusers in a therapeutic community. Addict Behav. 2004;29:1875–1882.
  • Brunton LL, Lazo JS, Parker KL. Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2006.
  • Spencer T, Biederman J, Wilens T, , et al Efficacy of a mixed amphetamine salts compound in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58:775–782.
  • Faraone SV, Spencer T, Aleardi M, Pagano C, Biederman J. Meta-analysis of the efficacy of methylphenidate for treating adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2004;24:24–29.
  • Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Results from the 2002 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings. NHSDA Series H-22, DHHS Publication No. SMA 03*3836. Rockville, Md.: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies; 2003.
  • Fredericks EM, Kollins SH. Assessing methylphenidate preference in ADHD patients using a choice procedure. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2004;175:391–398.
  • Stoops WW, Glaser PE, Fillmore MT, Rush CR. Reinforcing, subject-rated, performance and physiological effects of methylphenidate and d-amphetamine in stimulant abusing humans. J Psychopharmacol. 2004;18:534–543.
  • Rush CR, Essman WD, Simpson CA, Baker RW. Reinforcing and subject-rated effects of methylphenidate and d-amphetamine in non-drug-abusing humans. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2001;21:273–286.
  • Hart CL, Ward AS, Haney M, Foltin RW, Fischman MW. Methamphetamine self-administration by humans. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2001;157:75–81.
  • Roache JD, Grabowski J, Schmitz JM, Creson DL, Rhoades HM. Laboratory measures of methylphenidate effects in cocaine-dependent patients receiving treatment. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2000;20:61–68.
  • Kollins SH, Rush CR, Pazzaglia PJ, Ali JA. Comparison of acute behavioral effects of sustained-release and immediate-release methylphenidate. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 1998;6:367–374.
  • Spencer TJ, Biederman J, Ciccone PE, , et al PET study examining pharmacokinetics, detection and likeability, and dopamine transporter receptor occupancy of short- and long-acting oral methylphenidate. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163:387–395.
  • Levin FR, Evans SM, McDowell DM, Kleber HD. Methylphenidate treatment for cocaine abusers with adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a pilot study. J Clin Psychiatry. 1998;59:300–305.
  • Somoza EC, Winhusen TM, Bridge TP, , et al An open-label pilot study of methylphenidate in the treatment of cocaine dependent patients with adult attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Addict Dis. 2004;23:77–92.
  • Levin FR, Evans SM, Brooks DJ, Kalbag AS, Garawi F, Nunes EV. Treatment of methadone-maintained patients with adult ADHD: double-blind comparison of methylphenidate, bupropion and placebo. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2006;81:137–148.
  • Levin FR, Evans SM, Brooks DJ, Garawi F. Treatment of cocaine dependent treatment seekers with adult ADHD: double-blind comparison of methylphenidate and placebo. Drug Alcohol Depend. in press.
  • Levin FR, Evans SM, McDowell DM, Brooks DJ, Nunes E. Bupropion treatment for cocaine abuse and adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Addict Dis. 2002;21:1–16.
  • Grabowski J, Rhoades H, Schmitz J, , et al Dextroamphetamine for cocaine-dependence treatment: a double-blind randomized clinical trial. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2001;21:522–526.
  • Shearer J, Wodak A, van Beek I, Mattick RP, Lewis J. Pilot randomized double blind placebo-controlled study of dexamphetamine for cocaine dependence. Addiction. 2003;98:1137–1141.
  • Shearer J, Wodak A, Mattick RP, , et al Pilot randomized controlled study of dexamphetamine substitution for amphetamine dependence. Addiction. 2001;96:1289–1296.
  • White R. Dexamphetamine substitution in the treatment of amphetamine abuse: an initial investigation. Addiction. 2000;95:229–238.
  • Grabowski J, Rhoades H, Stotts A, , et al Agonist-like or antagonist-like treatment for cocaine dependence with methadone for heroin dependence: two double-blind randomized clinical trials. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2004;29:969–981.
  • Adler LA, Spencer TJ, Milton DR, Moore RJ, Michelson D. Long-term, open-label study of the safety and efficacy of atomoxetine in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: an interim analysis. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66:294–299.
  • Michelson D, Adler L, Spencer T, , et al Atomoxetine in adults with ADHD: two randomized, placebo-controlled studies. Biol Psychiatry. 2003;53:112–120.
  • Wolraich ML, Wibbelsman CJ, Brown TE, , et al Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder among adolescents: a review of the diagnosis, treatment, and clinical implications. Pediatrics. 2005;115:1734–1746.
  • Conners CK, Casat CD, Gualtieri CT, , et al Bupropion hydrochloride in attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1996;35:1314–1321.
  • Wilens TE, Spencer TJ, Biederman J, , et al A controlled clinical trial of bupropion for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158:282–288.
  • Wilens TE, Haight BR, Horrigan JP, , et al Bupropion XL in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. Biol Psychiatry. 2005;57:793–801.
  • Motavalli Mukaddes N, Abali O. Venlafaxine in children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2004;58:92–95.
  • Olvera RL, Pliszka SR, Luh J, Tatum R. An open trial of venlafaxine in the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 1996;6:241–250.
  • Connor DF, Fletcher KE, Swanson JM. A meta-analysis of clonidine for symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1999;38:1551–1559.
  • Taylor FB, Russo J. Comparing guanfacine and dextroamphetamine for the treatment of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2001;21:223–228.
  • Biederman J, Swanson JM, Wigal SB, Boellner SW, Earl CQ, Lopez FA. A comparison of once-daily and divided doses of modafinil in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a randomized, double-blind, and placebo-controlled study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2006;67:727–735.
  • Greenhill LL, Biederman J, Boellner SW, , et al A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of modafinil film-coated tablets in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2006;45:503–511.
  • Swanson JM, Greenhill LL, Lopez FA, , et al Modafinil film-coated tablets in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, fixed-dose study followed by abrupt discontinuation. J Clin Psychiatry. 2006;67:137–147.
  • Taylor FB, Russo J. Efficacy of modafinil compared to dextroamphetamine for the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2000;10:311–320.
  • Dackis CA, Kampman KM, Lynch KG, Pettinati HM, O'Brien CP. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of modafinil for cocaine dependence. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2005;30:205–211.
  • Biederman J, Spencer T, Wilens T. Evidence-based pharmacotherapy for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2004;7:77–97.
  • Castaneda R, Levy R, Hardy M, Trujillo M. Long-acting stimulants for the treatment of attention-deficit disorder in cocaine-dependent adults. Psychiatr Serv. 2000;51:169–171.
  • Riggs PD. Clinical approach to treatment of ADHD in adolescents with substance use disorders and conduct disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1998;37:331–332.
  • Grabowski J, Roache JD, Schmitz JM, Rhoades H, Creson D, Korszun A. Replacement medication for cocaine dependence: methylphenidate. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1997;17:485–488.
  • Wilens TE, Gignac M, Swezey A, Monuteaux MC, Biederman J. Characteristics of adolescents and young adults with ADHD who divert or misuse their prescribed medications. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2006;45:408–414.
  • Gordon SM, Tulak F, Troncale J. Prevalence and characteristics of adolescents patients with co-occurring ADHD and substance dependence. J Addict Dis. 2004;23:31–40.
  • Williams RJ, Goodale LA, Shay-Fiddler MA, Gloster SP, Chang SY. Methylphenidate and dextroamphetamine abuse in substance-abusing adolescents. Am J Addict. 2004;13:381–389.
  • Ciccone PE. Attempted abuse of concerta. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2002;41:756.
  • Hechtman L, Abikoff H, Klein RG, , et al Children with ADHD treated with long-term methylphenidate and multimodal psychosocial treatment: impact on parental practices. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2004;43:830–838.
  • Abikoff H, Hechtman L, Klein RG, , et al Social functioning in children with ADHD treated with long-term methylphenidate and multimodal psychosocial treatment. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2004;43:820–829.
  • Safren SA, Otto MW, Sprich S, Winett CL, Wilens TE, Biederman J. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for ADHD in medication-treated adults with continued symptoms. Behav Res Ther. 2005;43:831–842.
  • Hesslinger B, Tebartz van Elst L, Nyberg E, , et al Psychotherapy of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults—a pilot study using a structured skills training program. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2002;252:177–184.
  • Stevenson CS, Whitmont S, Bornholt L, Livesey D, Stevenson RJ. A cognitive remediation programme for adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2002;36:610–616.
  • Aharonovich E, Hasin DS, Brooks AC, Liu X, Bisaga A, Nunes EV. Cognitive deficits predict low treatment retention in cocaine dependent patients. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2006;81:313–322.
  • Conners CK. Clinical use of rating scales in diagnosis and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatr Clin North Am. 1999;46:857–870.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.